Heteroepitaxy of semiconductors: theory, growth, and characterization

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 14
Preface to the First Edition......Page 16
1. Introduction......Page 18
 References......Page 21
 2.2 Crystallographic Properties......Page 24
  2.2.2 Zinc Blende Structure......Page 29
  2.2.3 Wurtzite Structure......Page 30
  2.2.4 Silicon Carbide......Page 31
  2.2.5 Miller Indices in Cubic Crystals......Page 32
  2.2.6 Miller–Bravais Indices in Hexagonal Crystals......Page 33
  2.2.7 Computations and the Metric Tensor......Page 34
   2.2.7.1 Coordinate Transformation......Page 35
   2.2.7.2 The Metric Tensor......Page 37
   2.2.7.3 Distances between Lattice Points and Lengths of Vectors......Page 38
   2.2.7.4 Angle between Vector Directions......Page 40
   2.2.7.6 Reciprocal Basis Vectors and Reciprocal Metric Tensor......Page 41
   2.2.7.7 Distances and Angles Involving Planes......Page 43
   2.2.8.2 Zinc Blende Semiconductors......Page 46
   2.2.8.3 Wurtzite Semiconductors......Page 47
 2.3 Lattice Constants and Thermal Expansion Coefficients......Page 49
  2.4.1 Infinitesimal Strain Theory......Page 54
  2.4.2 Hooke’s Law......Page 58
   2.4.2.2 Hooke’s Law for Cubic Crystals......Page 60
  2.4.3 Elastic Moduli......Page 63
   2.4.3.1 Elastic Moduli for Cubic Crystals......Page 65
   2.4.3.2 Elastic Moduli for Hexagonal Crystals......Page 66
  2.4.4 Biaxial Stresses and Tetragonal Distortion in Cubic Crystals......Page 67
  2.4.6 Strain Energy in Cubic Crystals......Page 69
 2.5 Surface Free Energy......Page 70
 2.6 Dislocations......Page 74
  2.6.2 Edge Dislocations......Page 75
  2.6.3 Slip Systems......Page 76
  2.6.4 Dislocations in Diamond and Zinc Blende Crystals......Page 78
   2.6.4.1 Threading Dislocations in Diamond and Zinc Blende Crystals......Page 80
   2.6.4.2 Misfit Dislocations in Diamond and Zinc Blende Crystals......Page 81
   2.6.5.1 Threading Dislocations in Wurtzite Crystals......Page 84
  2.6.6 Dislocations in Hexagonal SiC......Page 86
   2.6.7.1 Energy of the Screw Dislocation......Page 87
   2.6.7.2 Energy of the Edge Dislocation......Page 89
   2.6.7.3 Energy of Mixed Dislocations......Page 90
   2.6.7.5 Line Energies of Dislocations in Nitride Semiconductors......Page 91
   2.6.7.6 Hollow-Core Dislocations (Micropipes)......Page 92
  2.6.8 Forces on Dislocations......Page 93
  2.6.9 Dislocation Motion......Page 94
   2.6.10.1 Diamond and Zinc Blende Semiconductors......Page 97
  2.7.1 Stacking Faults......Page 100
  2.7.2 Twins......Page 102
  2.7.3 Inversion Domain Boundaries......Page 103
 2.8 Electronic Properties of Semiconductors......Page 105
 References......Page 106
 3.1 Introduction......Page 118
  3.2.1 Vapor Phase Epitaxial Mechanisms and Growth Rates......Page 119
  3.2.2 Hydrodynamic Considerations......Page 121
  3.2.3 Vapor Phase Epitaxial Reactors......Page 123
  3.2.4 Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy......Page 126
 3.3 Molecular Beam Epitaxy......Page 129
 3.4 Silicon, Germanium, and Si[sub(1)]-[sub(x)]Ge[sub(x)] Alloys......Page 132
 3.5 Silicon Carbide......Page 134
 3.6 III-Arsenides, III-Phosphides, and III-Antimonides......Page 135
 3.7 III-Nitrides......Page 136
  3.7.1 Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth of III-Nitrides......Page 137
  3.7.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy of III-Nitrides......Page 139
 3.8 II-VI Semiconductors......Page 140
  3.8.2 HgCdTe......Page 141
  3.8.3 ZnO......Page 142
 References......Page 143
 4.1 Introduction......Page 148
 4.2 Surface Reconstructions......Page 149
  4.2.1 Wood’s Notation for Reconstructed Surfaces......Page 151
   4.2.2.1 Si(001) Surface......Page 152
   4.2.2.4 6H-SiC(0001) Surface......Page 153
   4.2.2.6 3C-SiC(111)......Page 154
   4.2.2.10 InP(001)......Page 155
   4.2.3.1 Inversion Domain Boundaries......Page 156
   4.2.3.2 Heteroepitaxy of Polar Semiconductors with Different Ionicities......Page 158
  4.3.1 Homogeneous Nucleation......Page 159
  4.3.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation......Page 161
   4.3.2.1 Macroscopic Model for Heterogeneous Nucleation......Page 162
   4.3.2.2 Atomistic Model......Page 163
 4.4 Growth Modes......Page 166
  4.4.1 Growth Modes in Equilibrium......Page 168
   4.4.1.3 Regime III (ε[sub(2)] < f < ε[sub(3)])......Page 171
  4.4.2 Growth Modes and Kinetic Considerations......Page 172
  4.5.1 Three-Dimensional Growth......Page 178
  4.5.2 Surface Roughening......Page 179
  4.6.1 Surfactants and Growth Mode......Page 180
  4.6.3 Surfactants and Misfit Dislocations......Page 182
  4.7.1 Topographically Guided Assembly of Quantum Dots......Page 183
  4.7.2 Stressor-Guided Assembly of Quantum Dots......Page 186
  4.7.4 Precision Lateral Placement of Quantum Dots......Page 187
 References......Page 189
 5.1 Introduction......Page 198
 5.2 Pseudomorphic Growth and the Critical Layer Thickness......Page 200
  5.2.1 Matthews and Blakeslee Force Balance Model......Page 201
  5.2.2 Matthews Energy Calculation......Page 203
  5.2.3 van der Merwe Model......Page 207
  5.2.4 People and Bean Model......Page 208
  5.2.5 Effect of the Sign of Mismatch......Page 209
  5.2.6 Critical Layer Thickness in Islands......Page 211
  5.2.7 Critical Layer Thickness in Nitride Semiconductors......Page 213
  5.3.1 Homogeneous Nucleation of Dislocations......Page 218
  5.3.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation of Dislocations......Page 220
  5.3.3 Dislocation Multiplication......Page 221
   5.3.3.1 Frank–Read Source......Page 222
   5.3.3.2 Spiral Source......Page 225
   5.3.3.3 Hagen–Strunk Multiplication......Page 228
 5.4 Interactions between Misfit Dislocations......Page 229
  5.5.1 Bending of Substrate Dislocations......Page 231
  5.5.2 Glide of Half Loops......Page 233
  5.5.3 Injection of Edge Dislocations at Island Boundaries......Page 235
  5.5.4 Nucleation of Shockley Partial Dislocations......Page 236
  5.5.6 Interfacial Misfit Dislocation Growth Mode......Page 238
 5.6 Quantitative Models for Lattice Relaxation......Page 242
  5.6.1 Matthews and Blakeslee Equilibrium Model......Page 243
  5.6.2 Kinetic Models for Relaxation......Page 244
  5.6.3 Dislocation Blocking......Page 246
  5.6.4 Surface Roughness and Dislocation Blocking......Page 249
  5.6.5 Matthews, Mader, and Light Kinetic Model......Page 251
  5.6.6 Dodson and Tsao Kinetic Model......Page 252
  5.6.7 Hull, Bean, and Buescher Kinetic Model......Page 254
  5.6.8 Kujofsa et al. Kinetic Model......Page 258
  5.6.9 Kinetically Limited Lattice Relaxation in Zinc Blende Semiconductors......Page 259
   5.6.9.2 Temperature-Graded Heterostructures......Page 260
   5.6.9.3 Lattice Relaxation in the InGaAs/GaAs Material System......Page 261
  5.6.10 Kinetically Limited Relaxation in Nitride Semiconductors......Page 269
  5.7.1 Nagai Model......Page 271
  5.7.2 Olsen and Smith Model......Page 272
  5.7.3 Ayers, Ghandhi, and Schowalter Model......Page 273
  5.7.4 Riesz Model......Page 280
  5.7.5 Vicinal Epitaxy of III-Nitride Semiconductors......Page 283
  5.7.6 Vicinal Heteroepitaxy with a Change in Stacking Sequence......Page 285
  5.7.7 Vicinal Heteroepitaxy with Multilayer Steps......Page 286
 5.8 Dislocation Coalescence, Annihilation, and Removal in Relaxed Heteroepitaxial Layers......Page 288
  5.8.1 Thermal Strain......Page 292
  5.8.2 Cracking in Thick Films......Page 294
 References......Page 297
 6.2 Critical Layer Thickness: General Case......Page 306
 6.3 Equilibrium Strain and Misfit Dislocations: General Case......Page 309
 6.4 Kinetically Limited Strain Relaxation: General Case......Page 311
 6.5 Threading Dislocation Densities: General Case......Page 314
 6.6 Step-Graded Layer......Page 316
  6.6.1 Lattice Relaxation and Residual Strain in a Step-Graded Layer......Page 317
  6.6.2 Misfit and Threading Dislocations in a Step-Graded Layer......Page 320
  6.6.3 Morphology and Surface Roughening in a Step-Graded Layer......Page 323
  6.7.1 Approaches to Linear Grading......Page 325
  6.7.2 Critical Thickness in a Linearly Graded Layer......Page 326
  6.7.3 Critical Layer Thicknesses in Linearly Graded Layers with Nonzero Interfacial Mismatch......Page 328
  6.7.4 Misfit Dislocations and Strain in a Linearly Graded Layer......Page 334
  6.7.5 Threading Dislocations in a Linearly Graded Layer......Page 340
  6.7.6 Crystallographic Tilting in a Linearly Graded Layer......Page 347
  6.7.8 Dual-Slope and Tandem Graded Layers......Page 350
 6.8 Sublinearly and Superlinearly Graded Layers......Page 352
  6.8.1 Critical Layer Thickness in Sublinear Exponentially Graded Layers......Page 353
  6.8.3 Comparison of Sublinearly and Superlinearly Graded Layers......Page 359
  6.9.1 Misfit Dislocations and Strain in the S-Graded Layer......Page 363
  6.9.2 Refined Model for S-Graded Layers......Page 371
  6.9.3 Threading Dislocations in S-Graded Layers......Page 372
 6.10 Strained Layer Superlattices......Page 374
 6.11 Conclusion......Page 375
 References......Page 376
 7.1 Introduction......Page 384
 7.2 X-Ray Diffraction......Page 385
   7.2.1.1 Bragg Equation......Page 386
   7.2.1.2 Reciprocal Lattice and the von Laue Formulation for Diffraction......Page 387
  7.2.2 Intensities of Diffracted Beams......Page 389
   7.2.2.1 Scattering of X-Rays by a Single Electron......Page 390
   7.2.2.2 Scattering of X-Rays by an Atom......Page 391
   7.2.2.3 Scattering of X-Rays by a Unit Cell......Page 392
  7.2.3 Dynamical Diffraction Theory......Page 394
   7.2.3.1 Intrinsic Diffraction Profiles for Perfect Crystals......Page 395
   7.2.3.2 Intrinsic Widths of Diffraction Profiles......Page 397
   7.2.3.3 Extinction Depth and Absorption Depth......Page 398
  7.2.4 X-Ray Diffractometers......Page 399
   7.2.4.1 Double-Crystal Diffractometer......Page 400
   7.2.4.2 Bartels Double-Axis Diffractometer......Page 403
  7.2.5 Resolution of X-Ray Diffraction Measurements and the Effect of Finite Counting Statistics......Page 404
  7.2.6 Reciprocal Space Maps......Page 406
  7.3.1 Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction......Page 409
  7.3.2 Low-Energy Electron Diffraction......Page 411
  7.4.1 Optical Microscopy......Page 412
  7.4.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy......Page 413
  7.4.3 Scanning Tunneling Microscopy......Page 415
 7.5 Crystallographic Etching Techniques......Page 417
 7.6 Photoluminescence......Page 419
 7.7 Growth Rate and Layer Thickness......Page 422
  7.8.1 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of a Binary Heteroepitaxial Layer......Page 425
  7.8.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of a Ternary Heteroepitaxial Layer......Page 427
   7.8.4.1 Application of RSM to a Uniform Buffer Layer......Page 431
   7.8.4.2 Application of RSM to Linearly Graded and Step-Graded Buffers......Page 434
   7.8.4.3 Application of Reciprocal Space Maps to III-Nitride Materials......Page 435
  7.8.5 In Situ Stress–Strain Measurements Using Multibeam Optical Stress Sensor......Page 436
 7.9 Determination of the Critical Layer Thickness......Page 441
  7.9.1 Effect of Finite Resolution on CLT Determination......Page 442
  7.9.2 X-Ray Diffraction Determination of the CLT......Page 444
   7.9.2.1 X-Ray Strain Method for CLT Determination......Page 445
   7.9.2.2 X-Ray FWHM Method for CLT Determination......Page 449
   7.9.2.3 X-Ray Topography Determination of CLT......Page 454
   7.9.2.4 TEM Determination of the CLT......Page 455
   7.9.2.6 Photoluminescence Determination of the CLT......Page 456
   7.9.2.7 PLM Determination of the CLT......Page 458
   7.9.2.8 RHEED Determination of the CLT......Page 459
   7.9.2.9 Scanning Tunneling Microscope Determination of the CLT......Page 461
   7.9.2.10 Rutherford Backscattering Determination of the CLT......Page 462
 7.10 Determination of the Crystal Orientation......Page 464
 7.11 Characterization of Defect Types and Densities......Page 466
  7.11.1 Characterizing Defects by TEM......Page 467
  7.11.2 Characterizing Defects by Crystallographic Etching......Page 468
  7.11.3 Characterizing Defects by X-Ray Diffraction......Page 470
  7.11.4 Characterization of Asymmetric Dislocation Densities......Page 476
   7.11.5.1 Application of X-Ray Reciprocal Space Maps to Characterize Defects in IMF-Grown Materials......Page 480
 7.12 Dynamical X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Multilayered Device Structures and Superlattices......Page 482
  7.12.1 Dynamical X-Ray Diffraction Analysis of Device Heterostructures Containing Dislocations......Page 486
   7.12.1.1 Phase-Invariant Model......Page 487
   7.12.1.2 Dynamical Modeling of Asymmetrical Dislocation Densities......Page 497
   7.12.1.3 Mosaic Crystal Model......Page 501
 7.13 Characterization of the Growth Mode......Page 507
 References......Page 511
 8.2 Buffer Layer Approaches and Virtual Substrates......Page 520
  8.2.1 Dislocation Compensation......Page 521
  8.2.3 Superlattice Buffer Layers......Page 524
 8.3 Reduced Area Growth Using Patterned Substrates......Page 530
 8.4 Patterning and Annealing......Page 533
 8.5 Defect Reduction by Selective Evaporation......Page 538
 8.6 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth......Page 540
 8.8 Nanoheteroepitaxy......Page 546
  8.8.1 Nanoheteroepitaxy on a Noncompliant Substrate......Page 549
  8.8.2 Nanoheteroepitaxy with a Compliant Substrate......Page 551
 8.9 Planar Compliant Substrates......Page 554
  8.9.1 Compliant Substrate Theory......Page 556
  8.9.2 Compliant Substrate Implementation......Page 558
   8.9.2.1 Cantilevered Membranes......Page 560
   8.9.2.2 Silicon-on-Insulator as a Compliant Substrate......Page 561
   8.9.2.3 Twist-Bonded Compliant Substrates......Page 565
 8.10 Free-Standing Semiconductor Films......Page 568
 8.11 Conclusion......Page 569
 References......Page 570
 9.1 Introduction......Page 574
 9.2 Strain-Relaxed Buffer MOSFETs......Page 575
  9.3.1 HEMTs with Arsenide Channel Layers......Page 577
  9.3.2 HEMTs with Nitride Channel Layers......Page 578
 9.4 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors......Page 580
 9.5 Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 581
  9.5.1 Red Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 583
  9.5.2 Amber Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 587
  9.5.3 Green Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 588
  9.5.4 Blue Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 590
  9.5.5 Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 592
  9.5.6 White Light-Emitting Diodes......Page 594
 9.6 Solar Cells......Page 596
 References......Page 603
Appendix I......Page 610
Appendix II......Page 612
Appendix III......Page 614
Appendix IV......Page 620
Appendix V......Page 626
Appendix VI......Page 628
Appendix VII......Page 630
Appendix VIII......Page 634
Index......Page 646