Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing

Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food processing, Volume 1......Page 3
Contents......Page 5
Contributor contact details......Page 13
Preface......Page 17
Part III Key issues and technologies for food waste separation and co-product recovery......Page 18
Part V Minimizing disposal: wastewater and solid waste management in the food industry......Page 19
Table of Contents......Page 0
Part I: Key drivers for waste management and co-product recovery in food processing......Page 21
1.1 Introduction: food processing waste – the scale of the problem......Page 22
1.2 Diversification and risk......Page 24
1.3 Biological basis of biowastes......Page 26
1.4.1 Overview......Page 27
1.4.2 Definition of waste......Page 29
1.4.3 Novel foods legislation......Page 32
1.5 Implementation of the waste hierarchy concept in relation to food processing co-products and wastes......Page 34
1.6 High-value components and whole-waste exploitation......Page 36
1.7 Future trends......Page 37
1.9 References......Page 38
2.1 Introduction: consumer interests as a key driver to improve waste management in food processing......Page 40
2.2.1 Sustainability......Page 42
2.2.2 Consumer issues......Page 44
2.2.3 Risk management and transparency......Page 48
2.3 Implications for food processors......Page 50
2.5 References......Page 52
Part II: Optimising manufacturing to minimise waste in food processing......Page 55
3.1 Introduction......Page 56
3.2.1 Legislation......Page 57
3.3 Chain management to minimise waste......Page 59
3.4 Good housekeeping procedures to minimise raw material waste......Page 60
3.4.1 Good housekeeping measures for specific activities......Page 61
Inventory control......Page 62
Storage......Page 63
Operations......Page 64
Recovery/reuse/recycling......Page 65
Prepared foods......Page 66
Seafood......Page 67
3.5 Effective implementation of measures to minimise waste......Page 68
3.6 Case study......Page 70
3.7 Future trends......Page 72
3.8 Sources of further information and advice......Page 73
3.9 Further reading......Page 74
3.10 References......Page 75
4.1 Introduction: energy use in food processing......Page 76
4.2 Energy saving and minimisation: process integration/pinch technology, combined heat and power minimisation and combined energy and water minimisation......Page 78
4.3 Renewables in the food industry......Page 86
4.4 Overview of selected case studies......Page 87
4.5 A case study: sugar processing......Page 89
4.6 Further studies......Page 94
4.7.1 Literature and conferences (papers, books, relevant conferences and journals, websites to study with a short evaluation)......Page 98
Service and advice providers......Page 102
Some EC-supported projects......Page 103
4.8 References......Page 104
5.1.1 Key reasons (economic, environmental, legislative, etc.) to optimise processes to minimise water use and wastage......Page 107
5.1.2 European legislation......Page 108
5.1.3 Best available techniques......Page 109
5.2 How to minimise water usage and wastewater treatment – present state-of-the-art and future trends......Page 110
Water contamination by food processing......Page 111
Wastewater treatment......Page 112
5.2.2 Water and wastewater minimisation: process integration/pinch technology and other optimisation techniques......Page 113
5.3 Overview of selected case studies......Page 117
5.3.1 Sugar plant case studies......Page 118
Water pinch analysis......Page 119
Water pinch targeting......Page 120
Conclusions......Page 126
Conferences......Page 127
Service providers......Page 128
EC-supported projects......Page 129
5.5 References......Page 130
Part III: Key issues and technologies for food waste separation and co-product recovery......Page 133
6.1 Introduction: importance of microbiological risk management in the stabilisation of co-products......Page 134
Good hygienic practices......Page 135
Principle 2. To determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs)......Page 136
Quantitative Microbiological Risk Assessment (QMRA)......Page 137
Methodology of QMRA......Page 139
6.3 Strategies for controlling micro-organisms: methods of preservation......Page 142
pH......Page 143
Dissociation......Page 144
Calculation of dissociation......Page 146
Buffer systems......Page 147
Partition......Page 148
Inorganic preservatives......Page 149
Reduction–oxidation potential......Page 150
Water activity......Page 151
Microbial antagonism......Page 153
Low temperature......Page 154
Modification of the gaseous atmosphere......Page 155
6.3.2 Applied processing......Page 156
6.4.1 New thinking in QMRA......Page 158
Growth boundary models......Page 159
6.5 References......Page 160
7.1 Introduction......Page 164
7.2 Changes during fruit ripening......Page 165
7.3.1 Temperature......Page 170
7.3.2 Wounding......Page 173
7.3.3 Altered gaseous environments......Page 174
7.4 Changes in composition......Page 175
7.5 Future trends......Page 177
7.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 178
7.7 Reference......Page 179
8.1 Introduction......Page 180
8.2.3 Biological molecules......Page 182
Proteins......Page 184
Polysaccharides......Page 185
Flaws......Page 186
Filled composites......Page 187
Molecular basis of mechanical behaviour......Page 188
8.3 Lessons from other industries......Page 190
8.4 Preservation processes......Page 191
8.4.2 Cooling......Page 193
8.5.2 Drying......Page 194
8.5.3 Biotechnology......Page 195
Wet milling......Page 197
8.6.3 High-pressure treatments......Page 198
Pressing and solvent extraction......Page 199
8.6.5 High-temperature, short-time extrusion......Page 201
Onion waste example......Page 202
Hydrolysis of lactose......Page 204
Starch syrups and bioethanol......Page 205
8.8 Future trends......Page 206
8.10 References......Page 207
9.1 Introduction and key issues......Page 213
Single cell protein (SCP)......Page 214
Production of enzymes......Page 215
Biodegradable polymers......Page 217
Microbial fat......Page 218
Glucose......Page 219
Protein hydrolysates......Page 220
Natural flavour compounds......Page 221
Biolubricants......Page 222
9.2.3 Combination approaches – a case study: glycerol production from oil waste......Page 223
9.3 Future trends......Page 225
9.5 References......Page 226
10.1 Introduction......Page 232
10.3 Supercritical fluid extraction......Page 235
10.3.1 Lipids from natural products......Page 237
Lipids from fungal and algal biomass......Page 240
Enzyme reactions in supercritical fluids......Page 241
Supercritical fluid fractionation of lipids......Page 242
10.3.2 Pretreatments to extraction......Page 244
Steam explosion......Page 245
CO2 explosion......Page 246
10.4 Modeling of solubility and mass transfer......Page 247
10.4.1 Thermodynamic modeling......Page 248
10.4.2 Mass transfer modeling......Page 249
Molecular diffusion (Fick’s law)......Page 250
Reverchon model......Page 251
Goto model......Page 253
Logistic model......Page 254
Other models......Page 255
10.5 Other technologies......Page 257
10.5.1 Microwave-assisted solvent extraction (MASE)......Page 258
10.6 Future trends......Page 260
10.8 References......Page 261
11.1 Introduction......Page 273
Selectivity......Page 275
Molecular cut-off......Page 276
Possible applications of MF/UF......Page 277
Principle of reverse osmosis......Page 279
Modeling of the mass transport through the membrane......Page 281
Description of the process......Page 282
Application of pervaporation......Page 286
Using pervaporation in a bioreactor hybrid process......Page 287
11.3.2 Membrane extraction......Page 288
11.4 Conclusions......Page 292
11.6 References......Page 293
12.1 Introduction......Page 297
12.3.1 Physical and thermal processes......Page 298
Screening......Page 299
Crystallization......Page 300
Centrifugation......Page 301
Hydrocyclones......Page 302
Adsorption......Page 303
Precipitation......Page 304
Isoelectric precipitation......Page 305
Chemical coagulation......Page 306
Colloidal gas aphrons......Page 308
Reactive separation......Page 310
Electrocoagulation (EC)......Page 311
12.4 Future trends......Page 312
12.6 Sources of further information and advice......Page 313
12.7 References......Page 314
Part IV: Waste management in particular food industry sectors and recovery of specific co-products......Page 318
13.1 Introduction......Page 319
13.2.1 Water......Page 320
13.2.2 Effluent......Page 321
13.3.1 Waste management planning......Page 322
13.3.2 Waste odours......Page 323
13.3.3 Wastewater......Page 324
13.3.4 Organic solid waste......Page 325
13.3.5 Animal feed bans and specified risk material (SRM)......Page 327
13.4.1 Blood-derived co-products......Page 328
13.4.2 Non-blood derived meat co-products......Page 331
13.4.3 Functional ingredients from meat......Page 337
13.5 Conclusions and future trends......Page 340
Legislation on BSE......Page 341
13.7 References......Page 342
14.1 Introduction......Page 346
14.2.1 Milk production......Page 347
14.2.3 Dairy processing overview......Page 349
14.3 Current status of waste problems faced by the dairy industry......Page 351
14.3.1 Water......Page 352
14.3.2 Energy......Page 355
14.3.3 Greenhouse gas emissions......Page 356
14.3.4 Disposal of waste......Page 357
14.3.5 Legislation......Page 360
14.4 Cleaner production in the dairy industry......Page 361
14.4.3 Process technology changes......Page 362
14.5.1 Whey......Page 363
Whey utilisation statistics......Page 364
Whey composition......Page 366
14.5.2 Utilisation of whole whey......Page 367
Whey fermentation......Page 368
Whey powder......Page 371
14.5.4 Demineralisation of whey......Page 372
Nanofiltration......Page 374
Ion exchange demineralisation......Page 375
Whey protein concentrate......Page 376
Whey protein isolate......Page 377
Separation of alpha-lactalbumin and beta-lactoglobulin......Page 378
Bioactive proteins......Page 379
Lactose manufacture......Page 380
Chromatographic separation of lactose......Page 381
Lactulose......Page 382
14.6.1 Water......Page 383
Water reuse options......Page 384
Treatment of recycled water......Page 385
14.6.2 CIP cleaning solutions......Page 386
Alternative ion exchange systems......Page 388
Recycling spent ion exchange brine......Page 389
International......Page 390
14.9 References......Page 391
15.2 Co-product recovery and development......Page 402
15.2.1 Eliminating waste......Page 403
Composting......Page 404
Meal manufacture......Page 406
Hydrolysates......Page 412
Skins......Page 418
Scales......Page 420
Livers......Page 421
Mince......Page 422
15.3 Shellfish......Page 424
15.4 Future trends......Page 427
Hydrolysis and silage......Page 428
15.6 References......Page 429
16.1 Introduction......Page 431
16.2.1 Fruit and vegetable juices......Page 432
16.2.3 Fruit and vegetable processing or preservation......Page 433
16.2.5 Starch production......Page 434
16.3.1 Dietary fibre......Page 435
16.3.2 Functional fibre......Page 436
‘Smooth’ regions......Page 437
Current raw materials......Page 439
Pectin gelling properties and food applications......Page 440
Pectin non-food applications......Page 441
16.4.2 Cellulose......Page 442
Chemical structure......Page 443
Isolation and upgrading of cellulose from fruit and vegetable wastes......Page 444
16.5.1 Bioactive oligosaccharides......Page 445
Hydroxycinnamic acids......Page 446
Hydroxytyrosol: a new potent antioxidant......Page 448
16.5.3 Aromas......Page 449
16.5.4 Ethanol......Page 450
16.5.5 Organic acids......Page 451
16.6 Conclusion and future trends......Page 452
16.8 References......Page 453
17.1 Introduction......Page 462
17.2 Residues generation and key reasons for co-product recovery......Page 463
17.3 Phytochemicals present in plant food residues......Page 464
17.4 Uses of plant food residues as sources for phytochemical extracts......Page 467
17.4.2 Nutraceuticals......Page 468
Apple......Page 469
Citrus......Page 470
Pomegranate......Page 471
Tomato......Page 472
Lettuce......Page 473
Brassicaceae......Page 474
Olive-oil extraction......Page 475
17.6 Examples of phytochemical extracts from plant food wastes......Page 476
17.7 Technological processes for phytochemicals extraction from residues......Page 477
7.10 Conclusions......Page 479
7.11 References......Page 480
18.1 Introduction......Page 484
18.1.2 Natural antioxidants: phenolic compounds......Page 485
18.2.1 Recovery of by-products from the food and food-processing industries: environmental benefits......Page 486
18.2.4 Biotechnological advances in the extraction processes......Page 487
18.3.1 Selected groups of plant polysaccharides: sources and bioactivity......Page 488
‘Acemannan’ from Aloe vera......Page 489
Glucomannan from Amorphophallus konjac......Page 490
Pectic polysaccharides......Page 491
Glucans......Page 492
Chitin and chitosan......Page 493
Sources and potential applications of phenolic compounds......Page 494
Fruits and vegetables......Page 495
Plant by-products......Page 496
Medicinal plants......Page 497
Extraction procedures for plant antioxidants......Page 498
Olive oil......Page 499
Oil from fruit kernels of the Rosaceae family......Page 500
Other important plant-derived oils......Page 501
SCFE of vegetable oils......Page 502
18.4 Future trends......Page 503
18.5 Sources of further information and advice......Page 504
18.6 References......Page 505
19.2 Natural dyes in technical textile dyeing operations......Page 516
19.2.1 General aspects......Page 517
Fastness properties......Page 520
19.2.2 Dyeing processes......Page 521
19.2.3 Selection requirements......Page 522
19.2.4 Ecological impact......Page 523
Cellulose fibres......Page 524
19.3.1 Raw materials......Page 526
19.3.3 Energy consumption......Page 527
19.4 Sources for natural dyes – results of a screening for sources in food processing......Page 528
19.5.1 Colour strength of extract......Page 531
19.5.2 Flavonoid dyes – onion peels (Allium cepa L.)......Page 535
19.5.3 Naphtoquinone dyes – nuts (Juglans regia L.)......Page 536
19.5.4 Anthocyanin dyes – berries......Page 538
19.5.5 Anthocyan dyes – grape peels from vine production (Vitis vinifera L.)......Page 541
19.5.6 Condensed tannins – tea (Theaceae)......Page 542
19.6 Future trends......Page 543
19.8 References......Page 544
20.1 Introduction......Page 548
20.1.2 Industry description and practices......Page 549
20.1.3 Pollution issues......Page 550
20.1.4 Disposal and recycling of oil wastes......Page 552
20.2 Key reasons to improve waste management in vegetable oil processing......Page 553
20.2.1 Economic and environmental reasons......Page 554
20.3.1 Sugars......Page 556
20.3.3 Polymer building blocks......Page 558
20.3.4 Polymerins......Page 560
20.3.5 Phenols......Page 563
20.3.6 Sterols......Page 564
20.3.7 New products......Page 565
20.3.9 Biodiesel......Page 566
20.4 Reducing waste in vegetable oil production......Page 568
20.5.1 Anaerobic processes......Page 570
20.5.2 Biological removal of phenols......Page 571
20.5.3 Combining anaerobic and aerobic processes......Page 572
20.5.5 Chemical oxidation......Page 573
20.5.7 Biosurfactants as fermentation products from yeast......Page 578
20.6 Future trends......Page 579
20.7 References......Page 580
Part V: Minimising disposal: wastewater and solid waste management in the food industry......Page 585
21.1 Introduction......Page 586
21.2 Food wastewater production and characteristics......Page 587
21.3 Analysis of conventional technologies for treatment of food processing wastewater......Page 591
21.3.1 Anaerobic treatments......Page 594
21.3.2 Activated sludge process treatment......Page 595
21.3.3 Aerated lagoon treatment......Page 596
21.3.4 Stabilisation pond treatment......Page 598
21.3.6 Land disposal of wastewaters......Page 599
21.4 Future trends......Page 600
21.4.1 Membrane and membrane bioreactor process......Page 601
21.4.3 Chemicals and biofuels production......Page 603
21.5 References......Page 605
23.1 Introduction: fermentation, biogas and biohydrogen production from food waste......Page 610
23.2 Key reasons to consider using anaerobic processes......Page 611
23.3.2 Acidogenesis......Page 614
23.3.3 Methanogenesis......Page 615
pH and alkalinity......Page 616
Nutrient requirements......Page 617
Toxicity......Page 618
Hydraulic retention time (HRT)......Page 620
Organic loading rate......Page 621
Biochemical methane potential (BMP) and anaerobic toxicity assay (ATA)......Page 622
23.6.1 High retention of biomass and biomass–substrate contact......Page 623
23.7.1 Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor......Page 624
23.7.2 Induced blanket reactor (IBR)......Page 625
23.7.3 Anaerobic sequencing batch reactor (ASBR)......Page 627
23.7.4 Other bioreactors that retain biomass......Page 628
23.9 Separation of anaerobic processes in reactor systems......Page 629
23.9.2 Comparison of TSAD and TPAD systems......Page 630
23.10.1 Properties of hydrogen as a fuel resource......Page 631
23.10.2 Value of biohydrogen as a fuel resource......Page 632
23.10.3 Microbiology of anaerobic biohydrogen production......Page 633
23.10.4 Treatments to enrich hydrogen-producing bacteria from mixed anaerobes......Page 634
23.10.6 Development of anaerobic biohydrogen production processes......Page 635
23.11 Producing other chemicals and useful products from food waste......Page 636
23.12 Future trends......Page 639
23.13 References......Page 641