Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology

Handbook of Vanilla Science and Technology......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 17
Contributors......Page 19
PRODUCTION OF VANILLA – AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS AND CURING......Page 21
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 23
1.1.1 The Mexican vanilla legend......Page 24
1.2.2 Intensive system (monoculture)......Page 25
1.2.3 Vanilla cultivation in existing orange groves......Page 26
1.2.4 Shade houses......Page 27
1.3.3 Establishing cuttings – planting......Page 28
1.5.1 Mulch......Page 29
1.5.2 Building compost......Page 30
1.8 SHOOT MANAGEMENT – LOOPING......Page 31
1.10 MAIN VANILLA INSECT PEST......Page 32
1.11.2 Rust......Page 33
1.12.2 Natural pollination......Page 34
1.12.3 Hand pollination......Page 35
1.12.4 Quantity of flowers to be pollinated......Page 36
1.13 HARVESTING......Page 37
1.14.1 Prices......Page 38
1.15 CURING......Page 39
1.17 BUYERS......Page 41
1.20 AROMATIC PROFILE......Page 42
1.21 SUMMARY......Page 43
REFERENCES......Page 44
2.2.1 Description......Page 46
2.2.3 Control......Page 47
2.3.3 Control......Page 48
2.4.1 Description......Page 49
2.5.1 Description......Page 50
2.6.2 Damage......Page 51
2.7.1 Description......Page 52
2.7.3 Control......Page 53
2.8.2 Vanilla Mosaic Virus (VMV)......Page 54
2.9.1.2 Damage......Page 55
2.10.2 Damage......Page 56
2.11 HURRICANES......Page 57
REFERENCES......Page 58
3.2 HISTORY OF VANILLA PRODUCTION IN COSTA RICA......Page 60
3.2.2 The second phase of vanilla cultivation in Costa Rica......Page 61
3.2.3 The third phase......Page 62
3.3 VANILLA PRODUCTION – THE TRADITIONAL SYSTEM......Page 63
3.4 VANILLA PRODUCTION – THE INTENSIVE SYSTEM......Page 65
3.5 PROPAGATION......Page 67
3.7 VANILLA BEAN PROCESSING......Page 68
REFERENCES......Page 69
4.1.1 Toledo agriculture and socio-demographics today......Page 70
4.1.2 Maya mountain research farm......Page 71
4.1.3 Agro-ecological systems......Page 72
4.1.4 Maya Mountain Research Farm vanilla cultivation and introduction project......Page 73
4.1.6 OVA description and goals......Page 75
4.1.8 Wild/relic vanilla stands in Toledo District......Page 76
4.1.10 Dr Pesach Lubinsky’s research in Belize and regarding Vanilla tahitensis......Page 79
4.1.11 Manché Chol......Page 81
4.2 DISCUSSION......Page 83
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 84
REFERENCES......Page 87
5.2 HISTORY......Page 89
5.4 CLIMATIC REGIONS OF AUSTRALIA SUITABLE FOR VANILLA......Page 90
5.5 CLIMATIC CONDITIONS IN THE VANILLA GROWING REGIONS......Page 91
5.9 PROPAGATION......Page 92
5.10 SUPPORT......Page 93
5.12 SPACING......Page 95
5.14.2 Fruit set (pollination)......Page 96
5.16.1 Overview......Page 97
REFERENCES......Page 98
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 99
6.2.2 Fruit components......Page 100
6.2.4 Pollination initiates ovary and fruit development......Page 101
6.3 ON-THE-VINE CURING PROCESS IN A VANILLA POD......Page 102
6.4 OFF-THE-VINE CURING PROCESS OF VANILLA BEANS......Page 104
6.4.1 Purpose of curing......Page 106
6.4.2.1 Killing......Page 107
6.4.2.3 Drying and conditioning......Page 108
6.5.1 Protease activity......Page 109
6.5.2 Cell wall hydrolyzing enzymes......Page 111
6.5.3 Glycosyl hydrolases......Page 112
6.6 ACTIVITY OF OXIDATIVE ENZYMES OCCURRING IN A CURING VANILLA POD......Page 116
6.7 VANILLA PRODUCTS......Page 118
6.9.1.1 Mexican curing method......Page 119
6.9.1.2 The Bourbon curing method......Page 120
6.9.1.5 Indonesian curing of vanilla bean......Page 121
6.9.3 Novel curing methods......Page 122
REFERENCES......Page 123
7.1 THE CRISIS......Page 127
7.2 THE FARMER......Page 128
7.3 FAST FORWARD......Page 129
7.4 FAIR TRADE – BACKGROUND......Page 130
7.6 VANILLA AND FAIR TRADE......Page 131
7.7 COMMODITY CYCLES......Page 132
7.8 ISSUES......Page 133
7.9 CONCLUSION......Page 136
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 137
8.1.1 I. Pre-Cultivation, ca. 1500–1750s......Page 142
8.1.2 II. Papantla Monopoly, 1760s–1840s......Page 145
8.1.3 III. The Vanilla Revolution, 1850s–1900, “… and we’ve never looked back”......Page 151
8.2 THE VANILLA NECKLACE......Page 152
8.3 SUMMARY......Page 154
REFERENCES......Page 155
AUTHENTICATION AND FLAVOR ANALYSIS......Page 161
9.2 QUALITY CONTROL OF VANILLA BEANS......Page 163
9.2.1 Grading of vanilla beans......Page 164
9.2.1.4 Vanilla grading in Uganda......Page 165
9.2.1.5 Vanilla grading in Tahiti......Page 166
9.2.2 Aroma of vanilla beans......Page 167
9.2.4 Vanillin content......Page 170
9.2.4.3 Vanillin determination in vanilla extracts and other vanilla products......Page 171
9.2.5 Microbial contaminant limits......Page 172
9.3.1.2 Vanilla flavoring......Page 173
9.3.1.7 Vanilla powder and vanilla-vanillin powder......Page 174
9.3.2.2 Flavor......Page 175
9.3.2.5 Organic acids – (Wichmann) Lead Number......Page 176
9.3.2.7 Microbial limits......Page 177
9.4.1.1 Evaluation of the ratios between specific components......Page 178
9.4.2.1 SIRA–Stable Isotope Ratio Analysis......Page 179
9.4.2.2 SNIF-NMR technique......Page 181
REFERENCES......Page 182
10.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 184
10.2 VANILLA FLAVOR ANALYSES......Page 185
10.3 BIOCHEMISTRY AND GENETIC RESEARCH ON VANILLA......Page 188
10.4 VANILLA QUALITY AND AUTHENTICATION ANALYSES......Page 190
10.4.1 Liquid chromatographic methods......Page 191
10.4.2 Isotopic techniques......Page 194
10.4.3 Radiometric and stable isotope ratio analysis......Page 195
10.4.5 Isotopic techniques summary......Page 196
10.4.6 Integrated and miscellaneous methodologies......Page 197
10.5 CONCLUSION......Page 200
REFERENCES......Page 201
11.1 LEXICON OF VANILLA AROMA/FLAVOR DESCRIPTORS......Page 205
REFERENCES......Page 240
12.2 USES OF VANILLA IN THE INDUSTRY......Page 242
12.2.5 Puddings......Page 243
12.2.9 Beverages......Page 244
12.3 MAJOR US VANILLA COMPANIES......Page 245
12.5 MATERIALS AND METHODS......Page 246
12.6.1 Labeling of retail vanilla extracts......Page 247
12.6.2 Flavor components in the retail vanilla extracts......Page 251
12.6.3 Total phenol content of the retail vanilla extracts......Page 253
REFERENCES......Page 256
13.1 EARLIEST RECORDED USE OF VANILLA......Page 257
REFERENCE......Page 262
BIOLOGY OF VANILLA......Page 263
14 Vanilla Phylogeny and Classification......Page 265
14.2 DIVERSITY WITHIN VANILLOIDEAE......Page 269
14.2.1 Tribe pogonieae......Page 270
14.2.2 Tribe vanilleae......Page 271
14.3 ORIGINS AND AGE OF VANILLOIDEAE......Page 272
14.4 DIVERSITY WITHIN VANILLA......Page 273
14.5 SYSTEMATIC CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS......Page 275
REFERENCES......Page 276
15 Molecular Analysis of a Vanilla Hybrid Cultivated in Costa Rica......Page 278
15.1.2 Phylogenetic analysis......Page 279
15.2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 280
REFERENCES......Page 285
16.1.1 Orchids and their mycorrhizae......Page 288
16.1.2 The fungal players: Rhizoctonia and related taxa......Page 289
16.2 METHODS......Page 290
16.3 DIVERSITY OF MYCORRHIZAL FUNGI......Page 291
16.5.1 Seedling germination experiments......Page 293
16.5.2 Seedling growth and survival......Page 295
16.6.2 Biocontrol of plant diseases using Ceratobasidium......Page 298
16.6.3 Are Rhizoctonia strains used for biocontrol also potential pathogens?......Page 299
REFERENCES......Page 301
17.1 L- PHENYLALANINE AMMONIA-LYSE (PAL) AND CINNAMATE-4-HYDROXYLASE (C4H)......Page 303
17.2 CHAIN SHORTENING ENZYMES......Page 304
17.4 O- METHYLTRANSFERASE (OMT)......Page 307
17.6 GLYCOSYLTRANSFERASES (GTS)......Page 308
17.7 β-GLYCOSYL HYDROLASES AND CURING......Page 309
REFERENCES......Page 310
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 314
18.2 MULTIPLE PATHWAYS TO VANILLIN?......Page 315
18.3 THE WAY FORWARD?......Page 318
REFERENCES......Page 319
BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PRODUCTION OF VANILLIN......Page 321
19.1.2 How?......Page 323
19.2.1 Ferulic acid (4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamic acid)......Page 324
19.2.1.1 Non-β-oxidative deacetylation (CoA-dependent)......Page 326
19.2.1.4 CoA-Independent Deacetylation......Page 328
19.2.2 Eugenol and isoeugenol......Page 332
19.2.4 Sugars......Page 334
19.3.1.1 Pseudomonas......Page 337
19.3.1.2 Streptomyces......Page 338
19.3.1.4 Corynebacterium......Page 339
19.3.1.5 Escherichia coli......Page 340
19.3.2 Fungi and yeasts......Page 341
19.4 PROCESSES......Page 343
19.4.2 Bi-phasic fermentation......Page 344
19.4.3 Mixed culture fermentation......Page 347
19.4.6 Cofactors......Page 348
REFERENCES......Page 349
Index......Page 355
Colour Plates......Page 147