HANDBOOK OF RESEARCH ON EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS AND TECHNOLOGY : learning.

Foreword
A New Direction
Scholarship to Address Contemporary Challenges
References
Contents
PART 1: Research Chapters
Introduction to Research Chapters
Section I: Understanding How Instructional Design/Technology Can Help All Learners Be Successful
Motivating and Engaging Students Using Educational Technologies
	Introduction
	Defining Motivation and Engagement
	Antecedents and Consequences of Motivation and Engagement
	Motivation Theories
	Assessing Motivation and Engagement
		Self-Reports
		Behavioral Measures
		Ratings by Others
		Physiological Data
	Designing Instruction to Motivate and Engage Students
		Empowerment Strategies
		Usefulness Strategies
		Success Strategies
		Interest Strategies
		Caring Strategies
		Evidence for the MUSIC Model
	The Motivating Effects of Current Technologies
	Issues in the Study of Motivation and Engagement
		Construct Issues
		Methodological Issues
		Interpretation Issues
	Conclusions
	References
Technologies to Enhance Self-Regulated Learning in Online and Computer-Mediated Learning Environments
	What Is Self-Regulated Learning?
	Self-Regulated Learning in Traditional Versus Digitally Mediated Environments
	Technologies to Support and Foster SRL in Online Environments
	The Use of Non-SRL Tools for SRL Purposes
	A New and Promising Area for SRL Research: Learning Analytics
	Current Challenges to Enhance Students’ Self-Regulation in Online and Computer-Mediated Environments
	Conclusion
	References
Developing Expertise and Expert Performance
	Introduction
	Issues and Considerations in the Design of Expertise Training
		Who Can Benefit from Expertise Training?
	Mental Functions for Expertise Training
		Training Recognition Skills
		Training Intuitive Decision-Making and Reflection
	Instructional Design Models for Expertise Training
		Expertise-Based Training (XBT)
		Expert-Performance-Based Training (ExPerT)
		ShadowBox
		Integrative Pedagogy
		Example: Training Classroom Noticing Via Video
	Conclusions
	References
Enhancing Knowledge Transfer
	Introduction
	Approaches to Transfer
		Behaviorist Approach
		Cognitive Approach
		Situated Cognition Approach
		Participationist Approach
		Developmental Practices Approach
	Main Strategies for Enhancing Transfer with Technology
	Paradigmatic Learning Designs for Facilitating Transfer
		Behaviorist Approach: Transfer Through Computer-Based Skills Training
		Cognitive Approach: Model-Based Learning for Transfer
		Situated Cognition Approach: Transfer by Playing Epistemic Games
		Participationist Approach: Transfer Through Mediational Practices
		Developmental Practices Approach: Transfer as Knowledge Co-creation
	Concluding Remarks
	References
Section II: Understanding How to Accommodate Differences Among Learners Through Instructional Design/Technology
Using Technology to Address Individual Differences in Learning
	Problem Definition
		Historical Overview
		Current Perspectives
		Individual Differences as States and Processes
	Promising Directions
		Addressing State-Level Differences
		Pretraining Approaches
		Addressing Process-Level Differences
	Translating Research on Individual Differences to Educator Practice: Universal Design for Learning
	Implications and Conclusions
	References
Gender and Technology: Social Context and Intersectionality
	A Turn in the Scholarship
		Organization
		Positionality
		The Meaning of Gender
		The Meaning of Intersectionality
	Research Is Socially Situated, and So Is Gender: A Context for Emerging Trends in Educational Technology Research
		The Cultural Deficit Model
		Methodological Issues
			Goals of Research
			Bibliometrics and Research Focus
	Gender and Learning Research Circa 1980–2005
	Gender and Learning Research Circa 2005–2017
		Typical Research Questions
		Culture and Gender Stereotypes: Bias and Representation
			Discussion
		Gender and Psychosocial Factors
			Self-Efficacy
			Cultural Differences
			Culture and Beliefs About STEM
				Discussion
		Gender and Generational Differences
			Discussion
		From Digital Access Divide to Social Inclusion: Gender and Digital Fluency
			Access as a Human Right
			Digital Inclusion and Place
				Discussion
		Gender Online: Social Media, Age, and Culture
			Cultural Differences
				Discussion
		Gender and Pedagogical Practices: Schools and Curriculum
			Learning Spaces
				Discussion
		Gender and the Post-secondary Learning Environment: Disciplinary Cultures
			Discussion
		Gender in STEM Workplaces: Intersections with Race and Culture
			Professional Workplaces
				Recruitment and Retention in STEM Jobs
			Academic Workplaces
				Research Awards
				Discussion
	Emerging Challenges and Research Directions Beyond 2018
		Gender and Design Thinking
	References
Designing for Accessibility: The Intersection of Instructional Design and Disability
	Introduction
	Review Process
	Summary of Research Literature
		Persons with Disability Literature
		Educational Technology Literature
	Summary of Research Findings
		Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
		Inclusive Classrooms
		Adult Learners: Accommodation and Intervention
		Training and Professional Development
		Collaboration
		Using Instructional Design to Facilitate Access to, and through, Technology
		Strategies and Challenges
		Sustainability
			Through Policy
			Through ID Practice
			Through Enhanced Awareness and Collaboration
			Through Research
	Reflective Questions
	References
Intellectual Development and Aging of Adults in Educational Technology
	Introduction
	Lifelong Learning and Adult Learners
	Intellectual Development in Adulthood
	Review of Recent Literature on Educational Technology and the Adult Learners
		Current Development of Online Learning for Adult Learners
		Factors Influencing Adults’ Adoptions of Technologies
		External Agents to Support Older Adults’ Learning of New Technologies
		Technologies Collecting Older Adults with the Societies and Communities
	Discussions
	Conclusions
	References
Equity-Centered Approaches to Educational Technology
	Understanding Contexts of Equity and Contesting “Gaps” in Student Achievement
	The Allure of Technology as an Educational Panacea
	Developing, Sustaining, and Researching Equity-Centered Approaches to Educational Technology
	Conclusion
	References
Cultural Implications in Educational Technology: A Survey
	Web-Based Learning
		E-learning
		Online Learning
		Distance Learning
		Cultural Considerations
	Digital Literacy
	Technology Use
	Social Networks
	Games
	Mobile
	Web 2.0
	MOOCs
	Discussion
	References
Using Technology to Facilitate Second Language Learning
	Introduction
	The Educational Need of Second Language Learners
	Recent SLL Research and Contributions of Technologies
		Providing Systematic Instruction and Collaborative Activities
		Addressing SLL Learners’ Unique Needs
		Developing Balanced Second Language Skills
		Creating Supportive Language Learning Contexts
		Using Learners’ Native Language and Culture
	Critical Research Questions and Methodologies
	Designing Sustainable and Scalable Technologies for SLL
	References
Section III: Understanding the Role Instructional Design/Technology Plays in Achieving Broader Learning Outcomes
Insights and Development of Non-cognitive Skills
	Introduction
	Non-cognitive Skills
		Distinguishing the Terms Cognitive, Non-cognitive, and Skills
		Non-cognitive Skills Defined
	Non-cognitive Skills in the Workforce
		Economic Impact
	Educational Implications
		Nature and Nurture
		Formal Educational Environments
		Educators and Non-cognitive Skills
	Implications for Instructional Design
		Meaningful and Active Experiences
		Collaboration
		Emotion
		Assessment and Feedback
			Building Trust
			Learning Intentions and Success Criteria
			The Intent of the Feedback
			The Learner’s Willingness to Receive Feedback
			Timeliness
	Conclusion
	References
Understanding Learners’ Challenges and Scaffolding their Ill-structured Problem Solving in a Technology-Supported Self-Regulated Learning Environment
	Introduction
	Purpose
	Expert Model of Self-Regulated, Ill-Structured Problem Solving
	Learners’ Challenges in Solving Ill-Structured Problems
		Learners’ Challenges Within Problem Representation and Solution Generation Stages
			Challenges in Applying Prior Knowledge
			Challenges in Cognitive Processing
			Challenges in Regulative Thinking
			Challenges of Unproductive Epistemic Beliefs
			Challenges in Learners’ Motivation
		Learners’ Challenges Navigating Between Problem Representation and Solution Generation
	Designing Technology-Supported Learning Environments to Support Ill-Structured Problem Solving
		The Design of Problem Scenarios
		Scaffolding and Tools
			Scaffold Activation of Prior Knowledge
			Scaffold Cognitive Processing
			Scaffold Regulative Thinking
			Scaffold Motivation
			Scaffold Epistemic Beliefs
			Scaffold Navigation Between Problem Representation and Solution Generation
	Facilitating Ill-Structured Problem Solving in Technology-Supported Learning Environments
		Expert/Instructor Facilitation
		Peer Facilitation
	Tying Together: An Illustration of Holistic Scaffolding
	Discussion and Conclusion
	References
A Systematic Review on E-learning Environments for Promoting Critical Thinking in Higher Education
	Introduction
	Learning to Think Critically in Higher Education. Teaching Approaches, Interventions, and Learning Environments
	Thinking Critically in E-learning Environments
	Methods
	Results and Discussion
		Characterization of E-learning Environments for Promoting Critical Thinking
		Critical Thinking in E-learning: Assessment, Good Practices, and Difficulties
	Conclusions and Challenges for Future Research
	References
Supporting Sociocultural Learning in Online and Blended Learning Environments
	Introduction
	What Is Sociocultural Learning?
	Facilitating Sociocultural Learning
	Summary of Relevant Research
	Conclusion
	References
Instructional Design for Learner Creativity
	Understanding Learner Creativity
		Divergent and Convergent Thinking
		Creative Self-Efficacy
		Autonomy
		Improvisation and Playfulness
		Willingness to Accept Failure
		Abstract Thinking
	Fostering Creativity in Learners
		Developing Individual Creative Attributes
		Improving Learners’ Holistic Creativity
		Translating Creativity Research into Practice
	Fostering Creativity Through Instructional Design and Technology
		Makerspaces
		Robotics Education
		Studio Learning
	Implications and Recommendations
		Supporting Creativity Through System and Space Design
		Teaching That Nurtures Creativity
		Promoting Holistic Creative Development
	Conclusion
	References
Educating with Technology for Youth’s Civic Engagement
	Introduction
	Definitions
		Citizens
		Civic Engagement
		Citizen and Civic Education
		Citizen Education Curriculum
		Linking the Definitions
	Impact of Technology on Citizens
		Technology and Communities
		Technology and Civic Engagement
		Issues with Technology for Civic Engagement
		Youth-Specific Attitudes About Technology and Civic Engagement
	Research Questions and Methodology
	Technology Support of Civic Education for Youth
	Current Practices in Technology’s Role in Citizen Education for Civic Engagement
		Online Curricula
	Action Civics
		Community-Based Civic Education
		Citizen Science
		Citizen Journalism
	Conclusions
	References
Section IV: Understanding How Instructional Design/Technology Contributes to Learning Outcomes Within Specific Subject-Matter Domains
Minding the Gap: Lacking Technology Inquiries for Designing Instruction to Retain STEM Majors
	Introduction
		Barriers and Drivers of Change
		Engaging Learners in Agentive Practices
		Building on Students’ Cultural Practices and Experiences
		Supporting STEM Learning with Educational Technologies
	Future Directions for More Equitable Technology-Enhanced STEM Education
	References
The Role of Instructional Design in Supporting the Transfer of Mathematical Knowledge and Skills
	Introduction
	Quantitative Literacy, Mathematical Literacy, and More
	The Issues with Teaching and Learning for Mathematical Literacy
		Decontextualized Instruction
		Need for Individualized Instruction and Scaffolding
		Students’ Perceptions, Attitudes, Motivation, and Confidence
	Role of Instructional Design in Addressing the Issues of Mathematical Literacy
		Situating the Mathematics Learning in Context
		Individualizing the Mathematics Learning
		Enhancing Motivational Outcomes and Confidence
	Conclusion
	References
How Educational and Communications Technologies Play a Role in Arts and Humanities Teaching and Learning
	What Theoretical Ideas Guide the Use of ECT in Arts and Humanities Education
	What Counts as ECT in the Arts and the Humanities?
		Consumption
		Production
		Collaboration and Community Building
	How Have ECTs Been Taken Up in Arts and Humanities-Based Educational Settings?
		Classroom Spaces
		Informal Learning Spaces
		Online Learning
			Formal Online Courses
			Informal Online Learning
	Why Do ECTs Matter for the Arts and Humanities?
	References
Vocational and Technical Learning
	Needs and Problems in Vocational and Technical Learning
	Review of the Relevant Literature
		Technical Skills
		Problem-Solving Skills
		General Employability
		Occupation-Specific Skills
		Online Learning
	The Role of Resource Centers
	Research Approaches and Methods
	Future Research
	Conclusion
	References
Section V: Understanding the Role Instructional Design/Technology Plays in Different Learning Contexts
The Digital Divide in Formal Educational Settings: The Past, Present, and Future Relevance
	Introduction
	Brief History of Digital Divide
	Operational Definition of Digital Divide
	Digital Divide Problem and Conceptual Model
		Level 1: School Infrastructure and Access
		Level 2: Classrooms and Use
		Level 3: Individual Students and Creation
	Review of Recent Empirical Research
		Level 1 Concerns
		Level 2 Concerns
		Level 3 Concerns
	Bridging the Three Levels of Digital Divide
		Level 1 Solutions
		Level 2 Solutions
		Level 3 Solutions
	Closing Remarks
	References
The Role of Educational Technology in Informal Learning Environments: Making and Tinkering
	Introduction
	Informal Learning and “Making and Tinkering”
	Educational Technology and Learning in Informal Making and Tinkering
	Addressing Issues of Inequity in Learning with Technology
	Future Opportunities
	References
Section VI: Understanding the Role Instructional Design/Technology Plays in Measuring and Communicating Learning Outcomes
Assessing Learning Outcomes
	Introduction
	Terms and Definitions
		Instructional Goals
		Instructional Objectives and Learning Outcomes
		Formative and Summative Assessments
		Objectively Scored Assessments
	Learning Objectives Background
	Problems Associated with Assessing Learning Outcomes
		Difficulty in Assessing Higher-Level Learning
		Using Instrument that Do Not Align with the Test Purpose or Learning Objectives
		Using Inappropriate Types of Assessment
		Writing Quality Test Items
	Solving the Assessment Problem
		Alternative Assessment: A Pedagogical Solution
		Technology-Enabled Assessment Solutions
		Computer-Assisted Language Testing
		Reporting Assessment Data
	Conclusions
	References
Competencies in Context: New Approaches to Capturing, Recognizing, and Endorsing Learning
	Definition of the Problem
		Comprehensive Responses to this Problem
	A Relatively Specific Response to this Problem: Open Digital Badges
		Open Digital Badges in the Assessment BOOC
		Examples Badges from the Assessment BOOC
	From Measuring Achievement to Capturing Learning
		Capturing Richer Evidence of Learning Contexts
		Capturing Broader Evidence of Individual Learning
		Capturing Evidence of Social Learning
		Capturing Evidence from Learning Pathways
	From Credentialing Graduates to Recognizing Learning
		Recognizing Learning Openly
		Recognizing a Broader Range of Competencies
		Recognizing a Broader Range of Proficiency of a Competency
		Recognizing Opportunities for Learning
		Recognizing Evidence to Motivate Learning
	From Accrediting Schools to Endorsing Learning
		Endorsing Learning with Peer Endorsement
		Endorsing Learning with Peer Promotion
	Discussion and Future Directions
	References
Acknowledging All Learning: Alternative, Micro, and Open Credentials
	Definitions and Affordances of Alternative Credentials
		Amount of Data
		Scope
		Shareability
		Verifiability
	Needs and Challenges with Educational Credentials
		Credential Interpreters (Marketplace)
		Credential Earners
		Credential Issuers (Educational Institutions)
	Initial Research Findings into Open Microcredentials
		Research on Microcredentials as Effective Credentials
		Research on Microcredentials as Motivational Agents
		Research on Microcredentials from a Pedagogical Perspective
	Conclusions
	References
Part VII: Research Chapters Afterword: What Role Could and Should Instructional Designers and Technologists Play in Achieving Larger Educational Goals?
	Defining Our Challenge and Our Role
	Clarifying Our Goal to Address Our Challenges
	To Advance Understanding of Instructional Designs and Technology Integration, Focus on Precedent, Failure, and Theory
	Emphasizing Our Unique Knowledge and Skills as Instructional Designers and Technologists
	References
PART 2: Design Case Chapters
Introduction to Design Case Chapters
	What Is this Section?
	What Are Design Cases?
	What Is this Section Doing in a Research Handbook?
	How this Section of the Handbook Might Be Used
		Perspective: Context and Focus of the Designs
		Perspective: Curators’ Notes
	Conclusion
	References
WASH by Design: A Design Case on the Collaborative Curriculum Project for Elementary Schools in Rural Papua New Guinea
	Context: Situating the Design
	Making Up the Design Team
	My Role as a Researcher and Designer
	Identifying Stakeholders in the Community
	The Design Process
	Design Workshops
	Know WASH: Curating Content
	User Research
	Rationale for Design Decisions
	References
Designing with Forgiveness in Mind for the Process
	Context
	The Case
		Creating Opportunities to Share Expertise
		Critical Decisions Considered
		Showing My Value
	Description of the Redesigned Course and Its Infrastructure
	Intended Experience for the Redesigned Course
	Pedagogical Design of Content
	Distinctive Aspects of the Redesigned Course
	Conflicting Expectations
	Underlying Aspects That Influenced the Redesigning Process
	Lessons Learned: Moving Forward
	References
A Design Case of an Enterprise-Wide Learning Management System
	Introduction
	Context
	Initial Design Considerations and Guiding Principles
	Description of the Design
	Effects of the Shortened Timeline on the Product
	Initial Implementation of Learning Suite
	Conclusion
Finding Junctures in Learning Design and Entrepreneurship: A Case of Experiential Learning in Online Education
	The Case for a Design Case
	So, What Is the Problem?
	A Design Philosophy
	Design and Implementation Context
	Participants’ Profiles
	The Key Design Decisions
		My Igniting First Ideas
		Course Initiation, Promotion, Content, and Evaluation
		Contribute to Elevate Social Presence
		Work as a Member of a Geographically Distributed Design Team
		Address Real Educational Problems
		Explore Entrepreneurial Opportunities
		Join a Professional Community
		Were the Design Decisions Impactful?
		Difficulties Encountered During the Design Case’s Enactment
	References
Expanding the Reach to First-Generation Students: A Collaborative Learning Experience Between Criminology Students in Sweden and the United States
	Introduction
	The Design Team
		Design Conception and Background
	Theoretical Foundation
	Planning and Key Decision-Making
		Institutional-Level Decision-Making
		Task Design and Technology
		Social Interaction and Sense of Community
		Incentive and Feedback
	Implementation
		Challenges
		Successes
	References
Reinventing Military Science in Higher Education: Using Service Learning and Cloud Computing to Develop Future Leaders
	Introduction
	Design Scenario
		Curriculum Model
	Design Elements
		Service Learning
		Problem-Based Learning
	Service-Learning Project Design and Learning Outcomes
		Service Project Design
		Technology Tool Decisions
		Fall 2013: Mesa Community Revitalization
		Spring 2014: Operation Smoke the Kids
		Project Feasibility and Over-/Underestimating Capabilities
		Span of Control
	Outcomes
		Fall 2013 Mesa Community Service Project
		Spring 2014 Operation Smoke the Kids
	Service-Learning Project Revision
		Reflections on the Project
	Future of ROTC and Instructional Design
	References
An Activity-based Design Case for Step-by-step Teaching of Programming to Secondary School Students
	How the Idea Came Up
	Forming the Design Group
	Defining the Problem and Understanding Needs
	Identifying Topics for Lesson Plans
	Choosing Steps for Teaching Algorithmic Thinking
	Developing Initial Activities
	Review and Refinement Process
		Internal Design Team Refinement
		Teacher Feedback and Revision
		Pilot Testing of Lesson Plans and Further Revision
	Concluding Thoughts
	References
Supports for Digital Science Games: Visualizing and Mapping Analogies
	Integrating Digital Games into Instruction to Dislodge Science Misconceptions
	Initial Rationale for the Design of the Digital Games and Instructional Materials
	The Design Process
	The Evolution of the Possible Worlds Digital Game Design
	The Evolution of the Design of the Possible Worlds Instructional Materials
	Instructional Material Design Guided by a New Theory: Analogy Mapping
	Lessons Learned over Ten Years of Game and Materials Design and Development
	References
Design Case for Asynchronous Online Professional Development in Primary Grades Mathematics
	Introduction
	Context
	Critical Decisions in Our Design Process of the Professional Learning Experience
	Description of the Professional Development
	Reflections on Distinctive Aspects of the Design and Plans for Future Design Work
	References
Evolutional and Technological Influences in Design: A Longitudinal Examination of the PRIDE Design Case
	Introduction
	Where Our Story Begins: The Time, Place, and Participants
		The PRIDE Curriculum
	Thinking Long-Term During a Rapidly Changing Domain
		Available Technologies Influenced Our Media Selection and Early Design Decisions
	Collaboration Challenges Within the Design and Development of the First Version
		The “Designated” Design Team and Marathon Meetings
		Balancing Language, Culture, and Character Differences
		Documenting a Shared Coding System
	Samples of Our Navigational Designs and the Rationales Behind Them
		Letting Learners See Their Progress Through Content Pages and Progress Indicators
		Guiding Learners Through the Training
		Letting Learners Know the Expectations
	How the Look of Our Training Changed over Time
		Changes in Our Graphics
		The Challenges with Creating Videos for the Design Case
	Keeping Score: Our Thoughts on Assessments
	The Final Take on What We Learned
	References
Situated Learning Through Situating Learners as Designers
	Introduction
	Design Goals
	Background
		Designers’ Stance
		Theoretical Synthesis
	The Design Case
		Course Context
		The Design
		Final Product and Student Response
		Designer Perceptions and Reflections on the Design Case
	Conclusion
	References
A Cross-Cultural Instructional Design Case Situated in a Global Workplace Learning Context
	Context
	Artifact
		Standards
		Performance Support Materials
		Training Materials
	Critical Design Decisions
		Needs Assessment
		Materials
		Pilot Testing
	Conclusion
	References
Reconciliation as Design: A Design Case
	The Context of the Design
	The Design Perspective
	The Design Space
	The Design Process
	The Design
	The Process
	Appendix
	References
Part VIII: Design Case Chapters Afterword: The Challenges and Opportunities of Sharing Design Studies
	The Challenges in Writing a Design Case
	The Challenge of Reviewing Design Cases
	The Challenge of Learning from Design Cases
	Design Cases as and for Research
	Coda
	References
Index