Handbook of Raman Spectroscopy (Practical Spectroscopy)

Handbook of Raman Spectroscopy......Page 4
A SERIES......Page 2
Dedication......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Table of Contents......Page 9
Contributors......Page 12
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 15
II. THE RAMAN TENSOR......Page 17
Ill. RAMAN INTENSITY INVARIANTS......Page 18
IV. GENERAL THEORY OF RAMAN OBSERVABLES......Page 19
V. FAR-FROM-RESONANCE LIMIT......Page 20
VI. SINGLE-ELECTRONIC-STATE RESONANCE LIMIT......Page 21
VII. RAMAN OPTICAL ACTIVITY......Page 22
VIII. AB INlTlO CALCULATIONS OF RAMAN INTENSITIES......Page 23
REFERENCES......Page 24
I. DISCOVERY OF THE RAMAN EFFECT......Page 25
C. Monochromators and Stray Light......Page 28
D. Operating Characteristics of a PMT......Page 29
A. Triple Spectrographs......Page 30
B. Multichannel Detectors......Page 31
1. Zntensijied Photodiode Array......Page 32
2. Charge-Coupled Device......Page 33
IV. HOLOGRAPHIC NOTCH FILTERS AND SINGLE SPECTROGRAPHS......Page 34
A. Background......Page 35
B. Characterisitics of FT-Raman Instruments......Page 36
A. Introduction......Page 37
B. Raman Imaging......Page 38
C. Raman Microprobe......Page 40
1. Confocal Principle......Page 42
2. Confocal Raman Mapping......Page 45
VII. REMOTE SENSING......Page 47
B. Imaging Focused Probes......Page 48
VIII. LASER EXCITATION WAVELENGTHS AND APPLICATION OPPORTUNITIES......Page 49
REFERENCES......Page 51
II. RAMAN SPECTROMETER SYSTEM OVERVIEW......Page 55
A. Lasers: An Introduction......Page 60
2. Diode-Pumped Solid-state Lasers......Page 61
4. Laser Reliability......Page 62
1. Zero-Dispersion Double Monochromator......Page 63
3. ReJective Znte~erence Filters......Page 65
a. Discrete Multilayer Dielectric Stack Filters.......Page 66
C. Spectrograph......Page 68
a. Gratings.......Page 69
b. Throughput: Etendue/Vignetting.......Page 70
c. Range and Resolution.......Page 71
d. Stray Light.......Page 72
e. Imaging Performance, Point-Spread Function.......Page 73
a. Czemy-Tumer.......Page 74
b. Concave Holographic.......Page 75
d. Echelle.......Page 76
e. Axial Transmissive.......Page 79
f. Fixed Filter/Reflection Grating.......Page 81
D. Detectors......Page 82
1. Photomultiplier Tube......Page 83
2. Charge-Coupled-Device Array......Page 84
a. Operation.......Page 85
b. Noise Characterization and Optimization.......Page 86
c. Other Peg5ormance Considerations.......Page 87
b. NZR-Active Material for Array Detectors: Germanium, Indium Galium Arsenide, and Platinum Silicide.......Page 89
E. Optical Sampling System......Page 90
b. Filtering.......Page 91
g. Multichannel Capability.......Page 92
a. "N-around-1 "Probes and Variants.......Page 93
b. Imaging Probes.......Page 99
F. Software and Data-Control Interface......Page 101
a. Instrument Control......Page 102
c. Exposure.......Page 103
e. Binning.......Page 104
g. Spectrometer Setup.......Page 105
j. Sequencer.......Page 106
l. Spectral Data Collection and Preprocessing......Page 107
1. Spectrograph Wavelength Calibration......Page 108
2. Intensity Calibration......Page 110
3. Laser Wavelength Calibration and Tracking......Page 111
A. Introduction to the Industrial Settings......Page 114
a. Temperature and Humidity......Page 117
a. Classijication Systems.......Page 118
a. Analysis Laboratory or Control Room.......Page 119
c. Stand-Alone Installation.......Page 120
1. Laboratory Analyzer Enclosures......Page 121
a. Enclosure Ratings.......Page 122
b. Temperature Control.......Page 125
3. Direct-Coupled Versus Fiber-Coupled Sampling Conjigurations......Page 127
4. Sampling Probe Environments......Page 128
a. Probe Head.......Page 129
b. Probe Optic.......Page 130
c. Fiber-optic Cables.......Page 135
5. Multichannel Operations......Page 136
6. Safety Issues Associated with Using Fibers Coupled and Lasers in Industrial and Classzjied Industrial Environments......Page 138
1. Analyzer Reliability and Maintenance......Page 140
3. Diagnostics......Page 141
D. Automated Calibration in the Industrial Environment......Page 142
a . Analyzer Setup.......Page 146
c. Analyzer Status Display.......Page 147
a. Direct Connection.......Page 148
IV. CONCLUSIONS......Page 149
REFERENCES......Page 150
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 159
A. Integration of the Microscope and the Spectrometer......Page 160
B. Laser Delivery......Page 162
C. Rayleigh Filters......Page 163
D. Use of the CCD Detector......Page 166
E. Making the Microscope Confocal......Page 167
F. Adaptation for UV and IR Lasers......Page 177
A. Introduction......Page 178
B. Raman Properties of the Diamond Anvil Cell......Page 179
C. Application to a Conjugated Polymer......Page 183
2. The Basic Principals of RSNOM......Page 187
1 . Generation of sub-An Aperture......Page 188
2. Maintenance of the Aperture in the Near Field......Page 189
4. Sample Positioning and Scanning......Page 190
D. An Example of a RSNOM System......Page 191
2. Experimental Details......Page 192
3. Results......Page 193
4. Discussion......Page 196
F. Other Examples of RSNOM Applications......Page 198
G. Conclusions and Future Developments......Page 199
REFERENCES......Page 201
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 205
Ill. BASIC CONCEPTS......Page 206
A. Point-by-Point Scanning......Page 208
B. Line Imaging......Page 210
C. Wide-Field Imaging......Page 211
V. RAMAN SPECTRUM ENABLES OBJECTIVE IMAGING......Page 213
A. Hadamard Transform......Page 215
C. Dielectric Interference Filter......Page 216
E. Liquid Crystal Imaging Spectrometers......Page 217
1. Lyot LCTF......Page 219
2. Evans Split-Element Filters......Page 221
VII. RAMAN IMAGING PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT......Page 222
B. CTF Assessment of an LCTF Raman Imaging System......Page 223
VIII. PROBLEM SOLVING WITH RAMAN IMAGING......Page 225
A. Multivariate Image Analysis......Page 227
3. Cosine Correlation Analysis......Page 228
X. RAMAN IMAGING FIBERSCOPES......Page 230
A. Raman Chemical Imaging Performance......Page 231
B. Semiconductors......Page 232
1. Silicon......Page 233
3. Gallium Nitride and Related Alloys......Page 234
C. MEMS......Page 236
D. Fuel Cells......Page 237
E. Polymers......Page 239
G. Meteorites......Page 244
H. Biomedical......Page 246
I . Introduction......Page 248
2. Raman-SEM Characterization of Airborne Particulate......Page 250
I . Introduction......Page 254
2. Granite......Page 256
3. Plutonium-Contaminated Incinerator Ash......Page 258
REFERENCES......Page 261
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 264
II. INSTRUMENTATION......Page 265
B. Automated Calibration of the Wavelength Axis......Page 267
I . Establishing an Accurate Atomic Line Position on the Detector......Page 268
2. Reproducibility in Pixel Position of Atomic Lines......Page 269
3. Establishing the Approximate Positions of Atomic Lines......Page 270
4. Assigning Atomic Line Wavelengths......Page 271
C. Spectral Alignment......Page 274
D. Raman Shift Assignment......Page 276
F. Correction for Effects of Laser Drift, Mode Hopping, and Intensity Fluctuations......Page 277
H. Instrument-to-Instrument Transfer of Spectra......Page 280
IV. AUTOMATED CORRECTION OF THE INTENSITY AXIS......Page 281
A. Choice of Source......Page 283
B. Correcting a Spectrum......Page 285
REFERENCES......Page 287
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 288
A. Metrics of Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis......Page 289
B. Univariate and Multivariate Analyses......Page 290
A. Smoothing and Denoising......Page 291
1. Random Noise Correction......Page 292
2. Cosmic Spike Removal......Page 293
B. Baseline and Background Removal......Page 294
C. Normalization for Correction of Uniform Intensity Changes......Page 297
D. Difference Raman and Mean Centering......Page 298
E. Integration, Band Fitting, and Variable Selection......Page 299
1 . Wavenumber Axis Calibration......Page 301
2. Intensity Axis Calibration......Page 302
3. Laser Wavelength and Line-Shape ESfects......Page 303
A. Unsupervised Analysis Techniques......Page 304
1. ClassiJications: Principal Components......Page 305
2. Cluster Analysis and Neural Networks......Page 309
B. Supervised Classification Techniques......Page 310
A. Calibrationless Analysis Techniques......Page 311
I . Classical Quantitative Calibrations......Page 313
2. Inverse Quantitative Calibrations......Page 314
a. PCR.......Page 315
b. PLS.......Page 316
V. CONCLUSION......Page 317
REFERENCES......Page 318
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 320
II. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES......Page 321
A. Spectrometers for Linear Raman Spectroscopy of Gases......Page 322
B. Spectrometers for High-Resolution Nonlinear Raman Spectroscopy......Page 324
1 . Stimulated Raman Gain and Inverse Raman Spectroscopy......Page 326
3. Ionization-Detected Stimulated Raman Spectroscopy......Page 329
Ill. SELECTION RULES AND EXAMPLES OF SPECTRA......Page 332
A. Diatomic Molecules......Page 333
B. Linear Molecules......Page 337
C. Symmetric Top Molecules......Page 343
D. Spherical Top Molecules......Page 345
E. Asymmetric Top Molecules......Page 346
IV. RAMAN-SCATTERING CROSS SECTIONS......Page 348
V. CONCLUSION......Page 349
REFERENCES......Page 351
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 362
A. Periodicity, the Essence of the Crystalline State......Page 363
2. Face Indices......Page 366
4. Zone Symbols......Page 368
1. Coordination Polyhedra......Page 369
3. Ionic Radii......Page 372
4. Packing, Stacking and Polytypism......Page 373
5. Stability and Metastability......Page 375
1. Classes, Groups, Species and Varieties......Page 376
2. Solid Solutions......Page 378
E. Molecules and Molecular Crystals, Organic or Not......Page 379
2. Seven Crystal Systems......Page 381
3. Fourteen Bravais Lattices or Space Lattices......Page 382
4. Thirty-two Crystal Classes or Point Groups......Page 384
5. Two Hundred Thirty Space Groups......Page 387
C. Site Symmetry......Page 388
A. Refractive Indices, Ray Paths, Vibration Directions, Wave Normals, and Birefringence......Page 390
B. Anisotropy, Optical Indicatrixes, Biaxial Ellipsoids, and Optic Axes......Page 394
C. Uniaxial and Isotropic lndicatrixes......Page 398
A. Raman Scattering in a Crystal......Page 399
B. Polarizability......Page 402
D. Group Theory......Page 403
E. Selection Rules......Page 408
F. Symmetry Attributions......Page 409
1. Porto Notation......Page 410
3. v1, v2, and v3 Notation......Page 412
H. Isomorphic or Isotopic Substitutions and Raman Shifts Due to the "Mass Effect"......Page 414
A. From an Individual Crystal to a Population and Its Environment......Page 418
B. Materials Sciences: Optics and Electronics......Page 419
C. Earth Sciences: Mineralogy and Petrology......Page 422
D. Social Sciences: Archaeometry and Ethnomineralogy......Page 424
REFERENCES......Page 433
I. NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL GLASS......Page 436
II. HISTORICAL APPROACH OF GLASSMAKING......Page 437
B. The Glass Transition......Page 439
IV. A STRUCTURAL APPROACH TO GLASS; DISORDER......Page 441
A. Glass Color......Page 446
I . Bulk Coloring of Glass......Page 447
2. Surface Coloring of Glass......Page 448
1. Isolated Molecular Groups......Page 450
a. Examples of Infrared Observations.......Page 451
b. Example of Raman Scattering.......Page 453
A. General Principles......Page 456
B. Experimental Setups......Page 458
1. "Classical" Right-Angle Scattering......Page 459
1. Vibrations of Glass......Page 460
2. Vibrations of Glass-Coloring Pigments......Page 464
D. Examples......Page 470
E. The Effect of Disorder: Theories and Experiments......Page 473
F. Databases......Page 474
G. Archaeometry: Corrosion......Page 477
VII. CONCLUSION......Page 478
REFERENCES......Page 479
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 482
II. METHODS OF ANALYSIS......Page 483
1. Raman Analysis on a Lot of Gemstones......Page 486
2. Raman Analysis on TaafSeite and Musgravite......Page 487
4. Raman Analysis on Stones Set in a Reliquary Cross from the Base1 Cathedral......Page 488
1. Raman Analysis of Inclusions in Corundum for Origin Determination......Page 490
2. Raman Analysis of Gemstones Behind Plastic or Glass......Page 491
1. Raman Analysis of Impregnated Jadeite......Page 492
4. Raman Analysis of Fissure Fillers in Emerald......Page 494
IV. FUTURE OUTLOOK......Page 500
REFERENCES......Page 501
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 503
II. LOW-DIMENSIONAL SEMICONDUCTORS: TYPES AND PREPARATION......Page 504
Ill. APPLICATIONS OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 505
1. Crystalline Order and Orientation......Page 506
a. Defects.......Page 509
3. Composition of Mixed Compounds......Page 511
4. Doping......Page 514
5. Inte$ace Effects......Page 516
6. On-Line Growth Controlling of MBE-Grown Systems......Page 517
B. Effects of the Size Restrictions on the Raman Properties......Page 518
a. Confined Optical Phonons.......Page 519
b. Folded Acoustical Phonons.......Page 521
2. Phonon Conjinement in Quantum Dots......Page 522
3. Size Determination of Nanocrystallites by Low-Frequency Raman Spectroscopy......Page 524
4. Inteiface Phonons......Page 526
5. Sugace Optical Phonons......Page 528
1. Pressure Dependence of the Phonon Properties......Page 530
2. Strain Effects in Nanostructures Due to Lattice Mismatch in QWs and MQWs......Page 532
3. Strain Relaxation in Quantum Wires and Etched Quantum Dots......Page 535
D. Electron-Phonon Coupling......Page 537
1. Multiphonon Resonance Raman Scattering......Page 538
2. Size Dependence of the Coupling of Excitons with Phonons......Page 542
E. Time-Resolved Raman Spectroscopy......Page 543
1. Ultrafast Vibrational Dynamics by Time-Resolved Raman Spectroscopy......Page 545
b. Transient Four-Wave Mixing......Page 546
IV. SUMMARY......Page 548
REFERENCES......Page 549
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 560
A. Choice of Laser Excitation Wavelength......Page 561
B. Fiber-optic Probes......Page 563
C. Confocal In Vivo Raman Instruments......Page 567
Ill. APPLICATIONS OF IN VlVO RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 571
A. Skin......Page 572
B. Oral Tissues......Page 574
C. Gynecological Tract......Page 575
D. Gastrointestinal Tract......Page 576
E. Atherosclerosis: lntravascular Raman Spectroscopy......Page 580
IV. FUTURE......Page 581
REFERENCES......Page 583
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 586
II. PRERENAISSANCE APPLICATIONS OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 587
A. Characterization of Drug Molecules......Page 588
B. Solid-state Properties......Page 589
C. Quantitative Uses of Raman Spectroscopy in Pharmaceutical Systems......Page 592
D. Formulations......Page 595
E. Other Pharmaceutical Uses of Raman Spectroscopy......Page 599
IV. FUTURE PHARMACEUTICAL USES OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 600
REFERENCES......Page 601
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 603
Ill. SPECTRAL REPRESENTATIONS IN LOW-FREQUENCY RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 604
IV. COMPARISON OF LOW-FREQUENCY SPECTRA OBTAINED BY DIFFERENT EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES......Page 606
A. Far-IR and Low-Frequency Raman Spectra......Page 607
B. OHD-RIKES and Low-Frequency Raman Spectra......Page 608
V. LOW-FREQUENCY STUDIES OF BIOLOGICALLY INTERESTING MOLECULES: LIQUID AMIDES......Page 610
VI. WATER......Page 617
VIII. RESONANCE ENERGY TRANSFER......Page 621
IX. COALESCENCE OF BANDS IN MIXTURES OF ISOTOPOMERS......Page 622
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 623
REFERENCES......Page 624
I. AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS......Page 626
A. Oxoanions......Page 627
B. Halides and Pseudohalides......Page 637
C. Protic Acid Solutions......Page 639
II. VITRIFIED SOLUTIONS......Page 642
Ill. AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES......Page 648
IV. NONAQUEOUS SOLVENTS......Page 659
A. Oxoanions......Page 660
B. Thiocyanates......Page 667
C. Halides......Page 672
V. MIXED SOLVENTS......Page 674
VI. ELECTROLYTE POLYMERS......Page 677
REFERENCES......Page 684
I. OVERVIEW......Page 692
II. INTRODUCTION......Page 693
Ill. ADVANTAGES OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY TO THE STUDY OF AQUEOUS SYSTEMS......Page 703
A. Normal Raman Spectroscopy......Page 706
B. Resonance Raman Spectroscopy......Page 713
C. Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy......Page 716
V. LABORATORY-BASED RESEARCH FOR THE CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS......Page 718
A. Speciation of Complex Organic Contaminants with Raman Spectroscopy......Page 719
B. Characterization of Humic Substances......Page 721
C. Degradation of Dithiocarbamate Fungicides......Page 725
D. Characterization of Chlorinated Solvent Remediation with Iron......Page 727
VI. FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND REMOTE SENSING......Page 731
VII. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 733
REFERENCES......Page 735
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 741
A. Noncontact In Situ Measurement......Page 742
D. Imaging and Mapping......Page 743
II. SURFACE-ENHANCED RESONANCE RAMAN SCATTERING......Page 745
Ill. THE ADVANTAGES OF SERRS......Page 747
A. Lipsticks and Shoe Polishes......Page 750
B. Fibers......Page 752
C. Printing Inks......Page 753
REFERENCES......Page 756
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 757
A. Benefits of Raman over Infrared......Page 759
II. CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION......Page 760
B. Natural Plant Fibers......Page 761
1. Cotton......Page 762
1. Wool......Page 765
2. Silk......Page 768
2. Nylon......Page 770
E. Additives......Page 773
A. Crystallinity......Page 774
2. Polyethylene Terephthalate......Page 775
B. Orientation......Page 779
1. Full Representation......Page 780
a. Tensorial Analysis of Fiber or Film Orientation for the Raman Tensor.......Page 781
b. Mapping of the Principle Axes of the Raman Tensor of the Vibrations onto the Principle Axes of the Sample.......Page 784
a. Examples: Zsotactic Polypropylene.......Page 788
c. Examples: PET.......Page 791
4. Correlation Methods......Page 792
A. Isolated Fibers......Page 793
1. Compressive Failure......Page 800
2. Integacial Micromechanics......Page 801
REFERENCES......Page 802
A. Heterogenous Catalysts......Page 807
B. In Situ Molecular Characterization of Catalysts......Page 809
II. BULK METAL OXIDE CATALYSTS......Page 810
Ill. SUPPORTED METAL OXIDE CATALYSTS......Page 815
IV. SUPPORTED METAL SULFIDES......Page 822
V. ZEOLITES AND MOLECULAR SIEVES......Page 824
VI. BULK AND SUPPORTED METAL CATALYSTS......Page 829
VII. HETEROPOLYANION CATALYSTS......Page 831
VIII. CHEMISORPTION STUDIES......Page 833
IX. COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT RAMAN SPECTROMETER SYSTEMS FOR CATALYTIC STUDIES......Page 835
REFERENCES......Page 837
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 842
A. Convento de la Peregrina, in Sahagun (Leon)......Page 844
F. Cantoral Books, Manuscripts, and Book Notes from the Monastery of Silos (Burgos)......Page 846
A. Standard Database Definition......Page 847
C. Spectral Identification......Page 848
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION......Page 850
A. Red Pigments......Page 857
B. Green Pigments......Page 861
V. CONCLUSIONS......Page 864
REFERENCES......Page 868
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 870
II. SYNOPSIS OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 871
2. Structure and Band Assignments of Diamond Crystals......Page 873
3. Diamond Synthesis......Page 875
1. Structure......Page 882
2. Raman Spectra......Page 883
C. Pitch-Based Carbon Fibers......Page 887
D. Disordered Carbon in a Lithium Ion Battery......Page 888
2. Rarnan Spectra......Page 889
3. Amorphous Carbon and Nonhydrogenated Diamondlike Carbon......Page 890
4. Superhard Amorphous Carbon Films by Pulsed Vacuum Arc Deposition......Page 894
a. Carbon Films and Fibers from Camphor.......Page 895
b. Catalytic Pyrolysis of Carbonaceous Vapors.......Page 896
F. Glassy Carbon......Page 899
1. Diamondlike Carbon by Laser Ablation......Page 900
4. Models of the Structure of DLC Films......Page 901
7. Bonded and Nonbonded Hydrogen in DLC......Page 903
9. UV Raman Spectroscopy of Carbon (Contributed by Dr. Richard Bormett of Renishaw Inc.)......Page 906
H. Amorphous Nitrogenated Carbon Films......Page 908
I. SERS Raman Spectroscopy of Mass-Selected Carbon Clusters Deposited on Silver Surfaces......Page 912
J. Carbon Nanotubes......Page 913
K. Fullerenes......Page 914
4. Metal-C60 Nanostructured Films......Page 915
L. Carbon Black......Page 917
M. Coal......Page 918
IV. CONCLUSION......Page 921
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 922
REFERENCES......Page 923
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 926
B. Laboratory Analysis......Page 928
1. Is the Excitation Wavelength Proposed or Demonstrated in the Laboratory Appropriate for Work On-line?......Page 930
a. Noncontact Direct Sampling.......Page 931
b. Noncontact Sampling Through a Sight Glass/Window.......Page 933
c. Immersion Sampling.......Page 934
3. Model Building, Model Prediction, and Calibration Needs......Page 937
5. Cost Justification......Page 938
D. Permanent On-line Installation......Page 939
A. Phosphorus Trichloride......Page 940
B. Titanium Dioxide......Page 943
C. Chlorosilanes......Page 945
D. Studies of Polymers......Page 949
1. Polymerization: Emulsion and Anionic......Page 950
2. Polymer Films and Fiber......Page 953
3. Polymer Reactive Processing......Page 954
1. The Eluxyl Process for p-Xylene Separation......Page 955
2. Raman Spectroscopy as a Method for Studying Petroleum Fuels......Page 956
3. Detection of Other Distillation Products......Page 958
F. Pharmaceuticals......Page 959
2. Reaction Monitoring......Page 960
G. Gases......Page 961
1. Measurement of Diatomic Species......Page 963
3. Leak Detection......Page 964
6. Anesthetic-Respiratory Gas Analysis......Page 966
H. Plating Baths and Metal Refining......Page 967
I. Diamondlike Carbon Films......Page 968
J. Semiconductors......Page 969
K. Food Chemistry......Page 972
IV. CONCLUSION......Page 973
REFERENCES......Page 974
A. The Role of Carbon Overcoats in the Disk Drive Industry......Page 981
C. Predicting DLC Overcoat Mechanical Performance Using Raman Spectroscopy......Page 983
A. Raman Instrumentation Used in the Disk Drive Industry......Page 984
B. Choosing a Laser......Page 985
C. Laser Power: The Burning Question......Page 987
A. Wear and Structure......Page 989
C. /(D)//(G) Ratio......Page 992
IV. MEASURING %H CONTENT IN DLC OVERCOATS USING RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 993
V. MEASURING %N CONTENT IN DLC FILMS......Page 997
A. Measuring DLC Film Thickness Using Raman Spectroscopy......Page 999
REFERENCES......Page 1003
I. INTRODUCTION. RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY IN UNDERGRADUATE TEXTBOOKS AND JOURNALS......Page 1005
II. INSTRUMENTATION......Page 1007
Ill. LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS AND EXERCISES IN RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY......Page 1008
IV. CONCLUSION......Page 1014
REFERENCES......Page 1015
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 1016
A. Comparison of Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy......Page 1017
A. Pigments......Page 1019
B. Archaeological Resins......Page 1021
C. Biomaterials......Page 1025
D. Real or Fake?......Page 1029
E. Human Mummified Tissue......Page 1031
F. Ochred Bone......Page 1041
G. Database Construction......Page 1042
Ill. CONCLUSIONS......Page 1045
REFERENCES......Page 1048