Handbook of radioactivity analysis

Cover
Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis: Volume 1: Radiation Physics and Detectors
Copyright
Contributors
About the Founding Editor
Foreword
Preface to the fourth edition
Acronyms, Abbreviations, and Symbols
1. The atomic nucleus, nuclear radiation, and the interaction of radiation with matter
	I. Introduction
	II. Discovery and characterization of the atomic nucleus and radioactivity
	III. Basic units and definitions
		A Properties of atomic constituents
		B Nuclides, isotopes, isobars, isomers, and isotones
		C Mass and energy
		D Q value
	IV. Naturally occuring radionuclides
		A Radionuclides of cosmogenic origin
		B Long-lived radionuclides
		C Natural radioactive decay chains
	V. Artificially produced radionuclides
	VI. Properties of the nucleus
		A Nuclear radius and density
		B Nuclear forces, quarks, gluons, and mesons
		C Binding energy
			1 Nuclear fission
			2 Nuclear fusion
			3 Nuclear fusion as an energy source
				a Advances in fusion reactor development
				b Fusion power reactor
				c Advantages of fusion over fission for power
		D Nuclear models
			1 Liquid drop model
			2 Shell model
			3 Collective model
		E Superheavy nuclei
		F Cluster radioactivity
	VII. Relativistic properties of nuclear radiation
		A Relativity
		B Relativistic length contraction and time dilation
			1 Length contraction in relativity
			2 Time dilation in relativity
		C Relativity in cosmic-ray muon detection and measurement
		D Relativistic measurements of particle lifetimes
			1 Bubble chamber measurements
			2 Measurements in CERN muon storage ring
		E Energy and mass in relativity
		F Relativistic mass calculations
		G Relativistic particle wavelength calculations
	VIII. Nuclear decay modes
	IX. Nuclear reactions
		A Reaction types
		B Notation
		C Energy of reactions (Q value)
		D Reaction cross section
	X. Particulate radiation
		A Alpha decay
			1 Alpha decay energy
			2 Alpha decay energy and half-life relationship
			3 Alpha-particle interactions with matter
		B Beta decay
			1 Negatron (β-) emission
				a Basic principles
				b Inverse beta decay
				c Neutrino mass
				d Negatron decay energy
			2 Positron (β+) emission
				a Basic principles
				b N/Z ratios and beta decay
				c Positron decay energy
			3 Electron capture
				a Basic principles
				b EC decay energy
				c Chemical and pressure effects on EC decay rates
			4 Branching β-, β+ and EC decay
			5 Double beta (ββ) decay
				a Discovery and current research
				b 2νββ decay energy
				c Neutrinoless ββ decay
			6 Parity violation in beta decay
			7 Beta-particle interactions with matter
			8 Beta particle absorption and transmission
		C Internal conversion electrons
		D Auger and Coster-Kronig electrons
		E Neutron radiation
			1 Discovery of the neutron
			2 Neutron classification
			3 Neutron sources
				a Alpha particle-induced nuclear reactions
				b Spontaneous fission
				c Neutron-induced fission
				d Photoneutron (γ,n) sources
				e Charged-particle accelerator sources
				f Thermonuclear fusion
				g Inertial electrostatic confinement fusion
			4 Interactions of neutrons with matter
				a Elastic scattering
				b Inelastic scattering
				c Neutron capture
				d Nonelastic reactions
				e Nuclear fission
			5 Neutron attenuation
			6 Neutron decay
		F Proton and neutron radioactivity
			1 Proton radioactivity
				a Beta-delayed proton emission
				b Direct proton emission
				c Detection and measurement of proton radioactivity
			2 Neutron radioactivity
				a Beta-delayed neutron emisson
				b Direct neutron emission
				c Detection and measurement of neutron radioactivity
		G Neutrino interactions with matter
	XI. Electromagnetic radiation - photons
		A Dual nature: wave and particle
		B Gamma radiation
		C Annihilation radiation
		D Line-spectra X-radiation and bremsstrahlung
			1 X-rays characterized by discrete spectral lines
			2 Bremsstrahlung
				a Bremsstrahlung in beta-particle absorbers
				b Artificially produced bremsstrahlung
				c Inner or internal bremsstrahlung
				d Nuclear bremsstrahlung (nuclear startstrahlung)
			3 Bremsstrahlung and line spectra X-rays from beta-particle emitters
		E Cherenkov radiation
			1 Origin and characteristics
			2 Threshold condition
			3 Threshold energies
			4 Applications
		F Synchrotron radiation
			1 Synchrotron radiation from natural sources
			2 Discovery of synchrotron radiation
			3 Synchrotron radiation and accelerated electron properties
			4 Synchrotron radiation production and applications
	XII. Interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter
		A Photoelectric effect
		B Compton effect
		C Pair production
		D Combined photon interactions
	XIII. Radioactive nuclear recoil
		A Relativistic expressions
		B Nonrelativistic expressions
			1 Nuclear recoil energy from alpha-particle emissions
			2 Nuclear recoil energy from gamma-ray photon, X-ray photon, and neutrino emissions
		C Sample calculations
			1 Nuclear recoil from alpha emissions
			2 Nuclear recoil from beta emissions
			3 Nuclear recoil from gamma-ray photon, X-ray photon, or neutrino emissions
		D Radioactive recoil effects
			1 Szilard-Chalmers process
			2 Radioactive disequilibrium
	XIV. Cosmic radiation
		A Classification and properties
		B Showers of the cosmic radiation
		C Cosmic-ray muon detection and measurement
		D Cosmic rays underground
		E Origins of cosmic radiation
		F Cosmic microwave background radiation
	XV. Radiation dose
	XVI. Stopping power and linear energy transfer
		A Stopping power
		B Linear energy transfer
	XVII. Radionuclide decay, ingrowth, and equilibrium
		A Half-life
		B General decay equations
		C Secular equilibrium
		D Transient equilibrium
		E No equilibrium
		F More complex decay schemes
	XVIII. Radioactivity units and radionuclide mass
		A Units of radioactivity
		B Correlation of radioactivity and radionuclide mass
		C Carrier-free radionuclides
	References
	Michael F. L'Annunziata
2. Gas ionization detectors
	I. Introduction: principles of radiation detection by gas ionization
	II. Characterization of gas ionization detectors
		A Ion chambers
		B Proportional counters
		C Geiger-Müller counters
	III. Definition of operating characteristics of gas ionization detectors
		A Counting efficiency
		B Energy resolution
		C Resolving time
		D Localization
	IV. Ion chambers
		A Operating modes of ion chambers
			1 Ion chambers operating in the current mode
			2 Charge integration ionization chambers
			3 Pulse mode ion chambers
		B Examples and applications of ion chambers
			1 Calibration of radioactive sources
			2 Measurement of gases
			3 Frisch grid ion chambers
			4 Radiation spectroscopy with ion chambers
			5 Electret detectors
			6 Fission chambers
	V. Proportional gas ionization detectors
		A Examples and applications of proportional counters
			1 Gross alpha-beta counting, alpha-beta discrimination, and radiation spectroscopy using proportional gas ionization counters
			2 Position-sensitive proportional counters
				a Single-wire proportional counters
				b Multiwire proportional counters
				c Microstrip and micropattern ionization counters
			3 Low-level counting techniques using proportional gas ionization detectors
			4 Application in environmental monitoring and health physics
				a Radon in water
				b Measurement of plutonium-241
				c Measurement of Iron-55
				d Tritium in air
				e Positron emitters in air
				f Monitoring of gaseous fission products
				g Radiostrontium
				h Health physics and dosimetry
	VI. Geiger-Müller counters
		A Designs and properties of Geiger-Müller counters
			1 Fill gas
			2 Quenching
			3 Plateau
			4 Applications
				a Environmental radioassay
	VII. Special types of ionization detectors
		A Neutron detectors
			1 BF3 tube construction
			2 Fast neutron detectors
				a Long counter
			3 Neutron counting in nuclear analysis of fissile materials and radioactive waste
			4 Moisture measurements
		B Multiple sample reading systems
		C Self-powered detectors
		D Self-quenched streamer
		E Long-range alpha detectors
		F Liquid ionization and proportional detectors
	References
	Further reading
	Prof. Dr. Georg Steinhauser
	Prof. Dr. Karl A. Buchtela
3. Solid-state nuclear track detectors
	Part 1: Elements
	I. Introduction
	II. Detector materials and classification of solid-state nuclear track detectors
		A Crystalline solids
			1 Muscovite mica
			2 Apatite
			3 Zircon
			4 Sphene
			5 Olivine
			6 Pyroxene
			7 Whitlockite
			8 Other crystalline solids
		B Glasses
			1 Man-made glasses
				a Soda-lime glass
				b Phosphate glass
				c BP-1 glass
			2 Natural glasses
				a Tektite
				b Obsidian
				c Basaltic glass
		C Plastics
			1 CR-39 (polyallyldiglycol carbonate, PADC, PM-355, PM-500, PM-600)
			2 Polycarbonate (PC, Lexan, Makrofol, Taffak)
			3 Cellulose nitrate (CN, LR-115, Daicell)
			4 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, Mylar, Cronar, Melinex, Lavsan, Terphane, Hostphan)
			5 CR-39-DAP series
			6 Polyimide (PI, Kapton, Upilex)
			7 Other new track detector materials
				a PETAC-ADC copolymer detector
				b Silicon nitride (Si3N4) as track detector
	III. Recordable particles with solid state nuclear track detectors
		A Protons
			1 Suitable detectors for proton detection
			2 Proton intensity measurements
			3 Proton energy measurements
				a Track diameter method
				b Track contrast (gray level) method
				c Step filter method
			4 Obtaining mono-energetic proton beam for track detector calibration
				a Defocusing proton beam
				b Deflection by high voltage electric pulse
				c High-speed rotation wheel
			5 Proton spatial distribution measurements
			6 Applications of proton detection
				a Laser acceleration
				b Laser confinement fusion
		B Alpha particles
			1 Suitable detectors for alpha-particle detection
				a CR-39
				b LR-115
				c Lexan or Makrofol
			2 Alpha-particle intensity measurements
				a Determination techniques of α-particle intensity on plane surfaces
				b Determination technique of α-particle intensity in liquids
				c Determination of α-particle intensity in air (gaseous substances)
			3 α-particle energy measurements
				a Track diameter method
				b Residual range method
				c Stopping-foil or range-filter method
			4 α-particle spatial distribution measurements
			5 Applications of α-particle detection
		C Fission fragments
			1 Suitable detectors for fission fragments
				a Muscovite mica
				b Polycarbonate (Lexan, Makrofol, Tuffak)
				c Polyethylene terephthalate (PET for short; Mylar, Chronar, Melinex, Terphane, Lavsan)
				d CR-39
				e Glasses
				f Geological minerals
				g Space minerals
			2 Fission rate determination
				a Thin, thick, and asymptotic fission sources
				b Point fission source
				c Liquid fission source
			3 Determination of detection efficiency of fission fragments
				a Determination of the number of atoms of 235U, 238U, 239Pu, and 233U
				b Determination of neutron number, fluence, and energy spectrum
				c Fission cross-section σf measurements
			4 Statistical counting method for determination of detection efficiency
				a Statistical counting method using spontaneous fission sources
				b Statistical counting method using induced fission sources
			5 Critical angle method
			6 Twin fragment method for determination of detection efficiency
				a Principle of twin fragment method
				b Statistical uncertainty of tracks in the twin fragment method
				c Effect of backscattering on detection efficiency of fission fragments
			7 Projected track-length method for determination of detection efficiency
			8 Backscattering effect of fission fragments from substrate and fission source
			9 Spatial distribution of fission and angular distribution of fission fragments
				a Spatial distribution of fission events
				b Angular distribution of fission fragments
			10 Application of fission detection
				a Nuclear fission study
		D Heavy ions (Z≥3)
			1 Suitable detectors for heavy ions Z≥3
			2 Identification of charge Z
			3 Identification of mass A of isotopes
			4 Heavy-ion energy determination
			5 Applications of heavy-ion detection
				a Heavy ion emission from heavy nuclei
				b Relativistic projectile fragmentations and the their products
		E Neutrons
			1 Principles of neutron detection
			2 Suitable detectors for neutron detection
				a CR-39
				b LR-115
				c Lexan, Makrofol (polycarbonate)
				d Muscovite mica
			3 Neutron intensity measurements
			4 Neutron energy measurements
				a Fission foil and track detector sandwich techniques
				b Recoil carbon and oxygen nuclei method
				c Radiator-Degrader-CR-39 method
				d Bonner sphere spectrometers
			5 Neutron dosimetry
			6 Applications of neutron detection
		F Exotic particle detection
			1 Suitable detectors for exotic particle detection
			2 Magnetic monopole detection
			3 Dark matter particle detection
	IV. Track formation mechanisms and criterions
		A Introduction
		B Track formation mechanisms
			1 Ion explosion spike for inorganic solids
			2 Chain breaking mechanism in high polymers
		C Criteria of track formation
			1 Primary ionization rate criterion
				a Formulation
				b Successes in explanation of thresholds
				c Existing problems
			2 Restricted energy loss for plastic track detectors
				a Formulation
				b Successes in explanation of thresholds
				c Existing problems
			3 Energy deposition model (ev)
				a Formulation
				b Successes in explanation of thresholds
				c Existing problems
		D Extended and transitional criterions
			1 Zeff/β
				a Successes and advantages of Zeff/β as a criterion of track formation
				b Existing problems
			2 dE/dx transitional parameter
		E Incapability of the former adopted criteria
			1 Incapability to estimate the threshold values of existing track detectors
			2 Incapability to design a new material possessing the expected threshold value
		F Conflict between track formation criteria and chain breaking mechanism
		G Latent track structures
			1 IR absorption spectrometery for polymer track detectors
			2 Cross-section of bond breaking by heavy ions
			3 Effective track core radius
			4 Layered structure of latent tracks
			5 Chemical etching and OH groups in polymers
			6 Radial Electron Fluence around ion tracks
	V. Track revelation
		A Chemical etching
			1 Etching condition
				a Etchant
				b Etching device
				c Etching temperature
			2 Track etching geometry
			3 Critical angle of etching
			4 Techniques of critical angle measurements
				a Direct measurement of half cone angle
				b Direct measurement of critical angle
				c Direct measurement of detection efficiency
			5 Track etching geometry
			6 Progress in track etching geometry
		B Electrochemical etching
		C Track etching kinetics
			1 Objectives and required parameters
			2 Forward calculation
			3 Inverse calculation
	VI. Particle identification
		A Maximum track length method
		B Track etch rate versus radiation damage density method
		C Track etch rate versus residual range method
		D Track diameter method for identification of charge Z at high and relativistic energy
		E Track length method for identification of charge Z at high and relativistic energy
	VII. Track fading and annealing
		A Track fading and annealing
		B Mechanisms of track fading
		C Arrhenius diagram
		D Application of track fading and annealing
			1 Problems resulting from track fading
				a Track loss increasing with etching temperature and time
				b Track loss increasing with temperature in the experimental environments
			2 Improving analysis with the aid of track annealing
			3 Apparent fission track age and its corrections
			4 Geothermal chronology
	VIII. Instrumentation
		A Size of latent tracks and etched tracks
		B Optical microscope
		C Track image analyser
		D Electron microscope
		E Scanning tunneling microscope (STM) and atomic force microscope
		F Spark counter
	Part 2: Applications
	I. Introduction
	II. Physical sciences and nuclear technology
		A Cluster radioactivities
		B Heavy ion interactions
			1 Relativistic projectile fragmentation
			2 Sequential fission after inelastic collisions
		C Nuclear fission and neutron physics
			1 Nuclear fission
			2 Neutron physics
		D Plasma physics
			1 Laser acceleration
			2 Inertial confinement fusion
		E Astrophysics and cosmic rays
		F Nuclear technology
			1 Nuclear reactor physics
				a Determination of neutron temperature
				b Determination of fast fission factor in nuclear reactors
				c Measurement of reactor fission rate and reactor power by track detector
			2 Accelerator-driven subcritical reactors
			3 Nuclear forensic analysis and nuclear safeguards
				a Nuclear forensics
				b Fission track technique
				c Mathematical formula of relocation
				d α-track technique
		G Elemental analysis and mapping
	III. Earth and planetary sciences
		A Fission track dating
			1 Absolute approach
				a Age equation
				b 238U spontaneous fission decay constant λf
				c Neutron fluence φ0
			2 Zeta approach
				a Age equation
				b ζ value
			3 LA-ICP-MS-based fission track dating
				a Age equation
				b Determination of 238U content in mineral by LA-ICP-MS
				c Determination of 43Ca to derive the effective mass of minerals
				d Determination of detection efficiency of internal surface for spontaneous fission fragments
			4 Continental drift and ocean-bottom speading
			5 Archeology and anthropology
				a Fission track dating of ancient man in Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, East Africa
				b Dating of Peking Man
				c Dating of ancient man in Baise, China
			6 Tectonic up-Lift rate determination
				a Retention temperature of minerals
				b Height difference method
				c Mineral pair method
		B Geothermal chronology
		C Uranium and oil exploration and earthquake prediction
	IV. Life and environmental sciences
		A Radiation protection dosimetry
			1 Radon and thoron monitoring and dosimetry
			2 Neutron dosimetry
				a Bonner neutron rem counter
				b Recoiling carbon and oxygen nuclei method
				c Radiator-Degrader-CR-39 method
				d Bonner spheres spectrometer filled with boron radiators plus CR-39
		B Environmental sciences
			1 Radioactive fallout from nuclear accidents
			2 Drainage contamination of nuclear plants
	V. Nanotechnology and radiation induced material modifications
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
	Shi-Lun Guo
	Bao-Liu Chen
4. Semiconductor detectors
	I. Introduction
		A The gas-filled ionization chamber
		B The semiconductor detector
		C Fundamental differences between Ge and Si detectors
			1 The energy gap
			2 The atomic number
			3 The purity or resistivity of the semiconductor material
			4 Charge carrier lifetime τ
	II. Ge detectors
		A High-purity Ge detectors: merits and limitations
		B Analysis of typical γ spectra
			1 Spectrum of a source emitting a single γ ray with Eγ < 1022keV
			2 Spectrum of a multiple-γ-ray source emitting at least one γ ray with an energy ≥1022keV
			3 Peak summation
			4 True coincidence summing effects
				a True coincidence correction for a simple case
				b True coincidence correction using Canberra's Genie2000 software
				c Monte Carlo methods to compute true coincidence summing correction factors
				d True coincidence correction using Ortec's GammaVision software
			5 Ge-escape peaks
		C Standard characteristics of Ge detectors
			1 Energy resolution
				a The electronic noise contribution (FWHM)elect and its time behavior
				b Interference with mechanical vibrations and with external radio frequency noise
				c Other sources of peak degradation
				d The Gaussian peak shape
			2 The peak-to-compton ratio
			3 The detector efficiency
				a Geometrical efficiency factor
				b The intrinsic efficiency εi and the transmission Tγ
				c Relative efficiency
				d The experimental efficiency curve
				e Mathematical efficiency calculations
				f Stability of the germanium detector efficiency
		D Background and background reduction
			1 Background in the presence of a source
			2 Background in the absence of the source
				a Man-made isotopes
				b Natural isotopes
			3 Background of cosmic origin
				a ``Prompt,'' continuously distributed background
				b Neutron-induced ``prompt'' discrete γ rays
				c ``Delayed'' γ rays
			4 Background reduction
				a Passive background reduction
				b Active background reduction
		E The choice of a detector
			1 General criteria
			2 Increasing the size of high-purity germanium detectors
			3 The germanium well-type detector
			4 Limitations to the ``relative efficiency'' quoted for coaxial detectors
			5 The Broad-Energy Germanium, or ``BEGe'' detector
	III. Si detectors
		A Si(Li) X-ray detectors
		B Si-charged particle detectors
			1 Alpha detectors
				a Factors influencing resolution and efficiency
				b Factors influencing contamination and stability
				c Stability of the detection system
				d The minimum detectable activity
			2 The Si drift detector technology
			3 Electron spectroscopy and β counting
			4 Readout of scintillators
			5 Continuous air monitoring
				a Light-tightness and resistance to harmful environments
				b Efficiency
				c Background and minimum detectable activity problems in continuous air monitoring
	IV. Cadmium zinc telluride detectors
		A Characteristics of cadmium zinc telluride detectors
		B Crystal growth techniques
			1 The Bridgman process
			2 Traveling heater method
		C Correction schemes to mitigate poor hole mobility in cadmium zinc telluride detectors
			1 Frisch grid device configuration
			2 Coplanar grid device configuration
	V. Spectroscopic analyses with semiconductor detectors
		A Sample preparation
			1 Sample preparation for alpha spectrometry
				a Sample mounting
				b Chemical separation
				c Preliminary treatments
			2 Sample preparation for gamma spectrometry
		B Analysis-analytical considerations
			1 Analytical considerations in alpha spectrometry
			2 Analytical considerations in gamma spectrometry
				a Peak location
				b Peak area analysis
				c Peak area corrections
				d Efficiency calculation
				e Nuclide identification and activity calculation
	VI. Advances in HPGe detector technology: gamma-ray imaging with HPGe detectors
	VII. Segmented Ge detectors and their applications in nuclear physics research
		A Segmented HPGe detectors
		B Neutrinoless double beta decay
		C Majorana collaboration
		D GERDA collaboration
	References
	Further reading
	Ramkumar (``Ram'') Venkataraman
5. Alpha spectrometry
	I. Introduction
	II. Alpha decay and alpha particle-emitting radionuclides
	III. Detection systems
		A Detectors
			1 Interaction of alpha radiation with detector materials
			2 Characterization of spectroscopic detectors
			3 Gas ionization detectors
			4 Semiconductor silicon detectors
			5 Scintillation detectors
			6 Cryogenic detectors
		B Electronic units
	IV. Characteristics of the alpha spectrum
		A Peak shape and spectrum analysis
			1 Peak shape and spectrum analysis with Si detectors
				a Peak shape
				b Peak fitting functions
				c Alpha spectrum analysis software
			2 Peak shape and spectrum analysis with gas ionization detectors
			3 Peak shape and spectrum analysis with liquid scintillation detectors
			4 Peak shape with cryogenic detectors
		B Counting efficiency
		C Background and contamination in alpha spectrometry
		D Stability of the alpha spectrometer
	V. In situ alpha spectrometry with Si detectors
		A Sampling and simplified sample processing
		B Data acquisition
		C Spectrum analysis tools
		D Alpha spectrometry combined with other analysis techniques
	VI. Radiochemical processing
		A Sample preparation and pretreatment
			1 Preparation of solid samples
				a Sample ashing
				b Sample dissolution
			2 Preconcentration of liquid samples and sample solutions
				a Preconcentration of actinides
				b Preconcentration of Po and Ra
		B Chemical separation
			1 Separations by liquid-liquid extraction
				a Chemical separation of actinides by liquid-liquid extraction
				b Chemical separation of Po by liquid-liquid extraction
			2 Separations by ion exchange
			3 Separations by extraction chromatography
				a Extraction chromatography of actinides
				b Extraction Chromatography of Radium and polonium
				c Combined procedures
		C Alpha source preparation
	VII. Determination of activity and recovery
		A Calibration
		B Measurement procedure
		C Alpha spectrum evaluation
			1 Principle of evaluation
			2 Nuclide identification
			3 Peak area determination for nonoverlapping peaks
			4 Peak area determination with correction for overlapping peaks
			5 Calculation of results
			6 Calculation of the combined standard uncertainty
				a Individual uncertainty components
				b Combined uncertainty
			7 Calculation of the decision threshold and the detection limit
				a Decision threshold
				b Detection limit
	VIII. Quality control
		A Quality control for alpha spectrometers
		B Validation of the procedure
	IX. Conclusions
	Terms and definitions, symbols, and abbreviations
	References
	Dr. Nóra Vajda
	Dr. Roy Pöllänen
	Paul Martin
	Chang-Kyu Kim
6. Liquid scintillation analysis: principles and practice∗
	I. Introduction
	II. Basic theory
		A Scintillation process
		B Alpha-, beta-, and gamma-ray interactions in the LSC
		C Cherenkov photon counting
	III. Liquid scintillation counter (LSC) or analyzer (LSA)
	IV. Quench in liquid scintillation counting
	V. Methods of quench correction in liquid scintillation counting
		A Internal standard (IS) method
		B Sample spectrum characterization methods
			1 Sample channels ratio (SCR)
			2 Combined internal standard and sample channels ratio (IS-SCR)
			3 Sample spectrum quench indicating parameters
				a Spectral index of the sample (SIS)
				b Spectral quench parameter of the isotope spectrum or SQP(I)
				c Asymmetric quench parameter of the isotope or AQP(I)
		C External standard quench indicating parameters
			1 External standard (source) channels ratio (ESCR)
			2 H-number (H#)
			3 Relative pulse height (RPH) and external standard pulse (ESP)
			4 Spectral quench parameter of the external standard or SQP(E)
			5 Transformed spectral index of the external standard (tSIE)
			6 G-number (G#)
		D Preparation and use of quenched standards and quench correction curves
			1 Preparation of quenched standards
			2 Preparation of a quench correction curve
			3 Use of a quench correction curve
		E Combined chemical and color quench correction
		F Direct DPM methods
			1 Conventional integral counting method (CICM)
			2 Modified integral counting method (MICM)
			3 Efficiency tracing (ET) with 14C
			4 Multivariate calibration
	VI. Analysis of X-ray, gamma-ray, atomic electron, and positron emitters
	VII. Common interferences in liquid scintillation counting
		A Background
		B Quench
		C Radionuclide mixtures
		D Luminescence
			1 Bioluminescence
			2 Photoluminescence and chemiluminescence
			3 Luminescence control, compensation, and elimination
				a Dark-adaptation of samples
				b Chemical methods
				c Temperature control
				d Counting-region settings
				e Delayed coincidence counting
		E Static
		F Wall effect
	VIII. Multiple radionuclide analysis
		A Conventional dual- and triple-radionuclide analysis
			1 Exclusion method
			2 Inclusion method
				a Dual-radionuclide analysis
				b Dual-radionuclide analysis with daughter ingrowth
				c Triple-radionuclide analysis
		B Three-over-two fitting and digital overlay technique (DOT)
		C Full spectrum DPM (FS-DPM)
		D Recommendations for multiple radionuclide analysis
		E Complex spectral analysis
			1 Most-probable-value theory
			2 Spectral fitting, unfolding, and interpolation
				a Spectral fitting
				b Spectrum unfolding
				c Spectral interpolation
			3 Spectral fitting and subtraction
			4 Modeling from spectral library
			5 Spectral unfolding by region count ratios
			6 Multivariate calibration
	IX. Radionuclide standardization via LSA
		A CIEMAT/NIST efficiency tracing
			1 Theory and principles (3H as the tracer)
			2 Procedure
			3 Specific examples
			4 Sample, cocktail, and spectrometer stability
			5 Cross-efficiency curves
			6 54Mn as tracer nuclide
			7 Ionization quenching and efficiency calculations (3H or 54Mn as the tracer)
			8 Other factors affecting efficiency calculations
			9 Radionuclides in decay chains
			10 Electron capture radionuclides
			11 Applications with plastic scintillation microspheres
			12 Radionuclide mixtures
		B Secondary standardization by the cross-efficiency method
		C Triple-to-double coincidence ratio (TDCR) efficiency calculation technique
			1 Principles
			2 Free-parameter model
			3 Experimental conditions and efficiency calculations
			4 The TDCR efficiency calculation technique in a nutshell
			5 Commercially available 3PM liquid scintillation analyzers
			6 Additional TDCR developments
				a Advances in applications
				b Utilization of channel photomultipliers
				c Portable TDCR systems
				d TDCR analysis with plastic scintillation microspheres
		D Compton Efficiency Tracing (CET) method
		E 4πβ-γ coincidence counting
	X. Neutron/gamma-ray measurement and discrimination
		A Detector characteristics and properties
		B Neutron/gamma-ray (n/γ) discrimination
			1 Digital charge-comparison (CC) method
			2 Simplified digital charge-comparison (SDCC) method
			3 Pulse gradient analysis (PGA)
			4 Zero-crossing method
			5 Time-of-flight (TOF) spectrometry
			6 General research into n/γ discrimination
	XI. Double beta (ββ) decay detection and measurement
		A KamLAND-Zen project
		B SNO+project
		C EXO-200 project
		D ZICOS project
	XII. Detection and measurement of neutrinos
		A Reines and Cowan reaction
		B Liquid scintillation schemes for neutrino detection and measurement
			1 Neutrino-electron scattering
			2 Reines-Cowan inverse beta decay reaction
			3 Inverse beta decay (charged current interactions) yielding negatrons and unstable nuclei
			4 Neutrino charged current interactions with 13C
		C Collaborations for LS neutrino detection and measurement
	XIII. Microplate liquid scintillation counting
		A Detector design and background reduction
		B Applications
		C Advantages and disadvantages
	XIV. PERALS, LS alpha-spectrometry with LAAPDs, and MNPs
		A PERALS spectrometry
		B Extractive scintillators and solvents for Alpha LS spectrometry
		C Extractive magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for Alpha LS spectrometry
		D Applications of PERALS spectrometry
		E LS alpha-spectrometry with LAAPDs
	XV. Simultaneous α/β analysis
		A Detectors
		B Establishing the optimum PDD setting
			1 Equivalent α and β spillover criteria
			2 Inflection point criteria
			3 Plateau criteria
		C α/β spillover corrections and activity calculations
		D Optimizing α/β discrimination in PDA
		E Quenching effects in α/β discrimination
		F Practical applications of α/β discrimination and analysis
	XVI. Plastic scintillators in LSC
	XVII. Scintillation in noble liquids
	XVIII. Radionuclide identification
	XIX. AIR luminescence counting
	XX. Liquid scintillation counter performance
		A Instrument normalization and calibration
		B Assessing LSA performance
			1 New commercial counters
			2 New custom-made counters
			3 Routine instrument performance assessment
		C Optimizing LSC performance
			1 Counting region optimization
			2 Vial size and type
			3 Cocktail choice
			4 Counting time
			5 Background reduction
				a Temperature control
				b Underground counting laboratory
				c Shielding
				d Pulse discrimination electronics
			6 Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
	Michael F. L'Annunziata
	Alex Tarancón
	Héctor Bagán
	José F. García
7. Sample preparation techniques for liquid scintillation analysis
	I. Introduction
	II. Liquid scintillation counting cocktail components11© 1998-2019 PerkinElmer, Inc. Printed with permission.
		A Solvents
		B Scintillators
		C Surfactants
			1 Nonionics
			2 Anionics
			3 Cationics
			4 Amphoterics
		D Cocktails
	III. Dissolution
		A Anions
		B Low ionic strength buffers
		C Medium-ionic-strength buffers
		D High-ionic-strength buffers
		E Acids
		F Alkalis
		G Other aqueous sample types
		H Selection and suitability of a cocktail based on ionic strength
	IV. Solubilization22©1998-2019, PerkinElmer Inc. Printed with permission.
		A Systems
		B Sample preparation methods
			1 Whole tissue
			2 Muscle (50-200mg)
			3 Liver
			4 Kidney, heart, sinew, brains, and stomach tissue
			5 Feces
			6 Blood
				GoldiSol and Soluene-350 method
				AquiGest and Solvable method
			7 Plant material
				a Perchloric acid/nitric acid (Wahid et al., 1985)
				b Perchloric acid/hydrogen peroxide (Sun et al.,1988; Mahin and Lofberg, 1966; Recalcati et al.,1982; Fuchs and De Vries, 1972)
				c Sodium hypochlorite
			8 Electrophoresis gels
				a Gel elution
				b Gel dissolution
	V. Combustion
	VI. Comparison of sample oxidation and solubilization techniques33©1998-2019, PerkinElmer Inc. Printed with permission.
		A Solubilization
		B What is sample combustion?
		C Advantages and disadvantages
			1 Solubilization methods and suitability
			2 Sample combustion methods and suitability
	VII. Carbon dioxide trapping and counting44©1998-2019, PerkinElmer, Inc. Printed with permission.
		A Sodium hydroxide
		B Hyaminehydroxide
		C Ethanolamine
		D CarbonTrap and Carbo-Sorb E
	VIII. Biological samples encountered in absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
		A Urine
			1 Sample preparation
		B Whole blood
			1 Sample preparation
		C Plasma and serum
			1 Sample preparation
		D Muscle, skin, heart, brains, and stomach
			1 Sample preparation
		E Liver and kidney
			1 Sample preparation
		F Fatty tissue
			1 Sample preparation
		G Feces
			1 Sample preparation
		H Homogenates
		I Solubilization and combustion
	IX. Filter and membrane counting55©1998-2019, PerkinElmer, Inc. Printed with permission.
		A Elution situations
		B Sample collection and filters
		C Filter and membrane types
		D Sample preparation methods
			1 No elution
			2 Partial elution
			3 Complete elution
	X. Sample stability troubleshooting
		A Decreasing count rate
		B Increasing count rate
		C Reduced counting efficiency
	XI. Swipe assays
		A Wipe media and cocktails
		B Regulatory considerations
		C Practical considerations
		D General procedure for wipe testing
	XII. Preparation and use of quench curves in liquid scintillation counting66©1998-2019, PerkinElmer, Inc. Printed with perm ...
		A Chemical quench
		B Color quench
		C Measurement of quench
		D Quench curve
			1 Preparation of quench curves
				a Method 1
				b Method 2
			2 Notes on using the quench curves
			3 Color quench
			4 Quench curve errors
			5 Using a quench curve
		E Quench correction using selectable multichannel analyzer
	XIII. Environmental sample preparation77©1998-2019, PerkinElmer, Inc. Printed with permission.
		A Extraction chromatographic sample preparation
		B Aqueous sample preparation
	XIV. Waste cocktails-environmental consequences
		A Generation of waste cocktails
		B Disposal methods
		C Biodegradability
			1 Testing for biodegradability
			2 Biodegradability test methods
				a OECDTG 301 A ready biodegradability: DOCdie-away test
				b OECDTG 301 B ready biodegradability: CO2 evolution test
				c OECDTG 301C ready biodegradability: modified MITItest (I)
				d OECDTG 301 D ready biodegradability: closed bottle test
				e OECDTG 301E ready biodegradability: modified OECDscreening test
				f OECDTG 301F ready biodegradability: also called the manometric respirometry test
				g OECD 302 A inherent biodegradability: modified semicontinuous activated sludgetest
				h OECD 302 B inherent biodegradability: Zahn-Wellens/EMPAtest
				i OECD 302 C inherent biodegradability: modified MITItest (II)
		D Incineration
		E Legislation and regulatory information
		F Waste cocktails-the way forward
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
8. Radioisotope mass spectrometry
	I. Introduction
	II. Figures of merit
	III. Thermal ionization mass spectrometry
		A Principle of surface ionization
		B Applications
			1 Isotope ratio determination with thermal ionization mass spectrometry
			2 High-sensitivity measurements with thermal ionization mass spectrometry
	IV. Glow discharge mass spectrometry
		A Principle of ionization in a glow discharge
		B Applications
			1 Trace and bulk analysis of nuclear samples
			2 Determination of radioisotopes in the environment
			3 Determination of isotopic compositions
			4 Depth profiling measurements
	V. Secondary ion mass spectrometry
		A Principle of ionization through ion impact
		B Applications
			1 Radioecology
			2 Safeguards and nonproliferation control
			3 Cosmochemistry
			4 Geosciences
			5 Trace analysis
			6 Radiochemistry and material sciences
	VI. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
		A Principle and instrumentation
		B Sample introduction
			1 Nebulization
			2 Hyphenated systems
			3 Laser ablation
		C Applications to radionuclides
			1 Methodical developments on isotope ratios
			2 Radioecology
			3 Treatment and storage of nuclear waste
			4 Application to Chernobyl and Fukushima samples
	VII. Resonance ionization mass spectrometry
		A Principle and requirements for the laser light sources
		B Resonance ionization mass spectrometry systems and applications
			1 Elemental-selective resonance ionization mass spectrometry using pulsed lasers
			2 Highest isotopic selectivity using continuous wave lasers
	VIII. Accelerator mass spectrometry
		A Principle
		B Applications of accelerator mass spectrometry
			1 Radioisotope dating in archeology and other applications of the isotope 14C
			2 Accelerator mass spectrometry applications in geo- and cosmoscience
			3 Noble gas analysis
			4 Accelerator mass spectrometry in life sciences
			5 Accelerator mass spectrometry measurements on long-lived radionuclides in the environment
	References
	Clemens Walther
	Klaus D.A. Wendt
9. Solid scintillation analysis
	I. Introduction
	II. Principles of solid scintillation
		A Inorganic crystal scintillators and their properties
		B Scintillation mechanisms in inorganic crystals
		C Conversion of detector scintillations to voltage pulses
	III. Solid scintillation analyzer
		A Scintillation crystal detectors
			1 Planar detector
			2 Well-detector
			3 Through-hole detector
		B Photomultipliers
			1 Dynode photomultiplier or PMT
			2 Hybrid photomultiplier tube
			3 Microchannel plate photomultiplier
			4 Channel photomultiplier
			5 Semiconductor photomultipliers
				a p-i-n photodiodes
				b Avalanche photodiodes
					i The ``beveled-edge'' type
					ii The ``reach through'' type
					iii The ``reverse'' type
				c Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GM-APD) ― silicon photomultiplier (SiPM)
		C Pulse height discriminators
		D Single-channel analyzer
		E Multichannel analyzer
		F Other components
	IV. Concepts and principles of solid scintillation analysis
		A Gamma-ray spectra
		B Counting and detector efficiencies
			1 Counting efficiency
			2 Detector efficiency
				a Full-energy peak efficiency
				b Total or absolute efficiency
		C Sum-peak activity determinations
		D Modified sum-peak activity determinations
		E Self-absorption
		F Counting geometry
		G Resolution
		H Background
	V. Automated solid scintillation analyzers
		A Automated gamma analysis
			1 Multiple detector design
			2 Multiuser automatic gamma activity analysis
			3 Multiple gamma-emitting nuclide analysis
				a Dual-nuclide analysis
				b Spectrum unfolding of multiple radionuclide spectra
		B Microplate scintillation analysis
			1 Solid scintillation counting in microplates
			2 Scintillation proximity assay
				a Basic principles
				b Immunoassay applications
				c Receptor binding assays
				d Enzyme assays
				f SPA with scintillating microplates
				g Color quench correction
	VI. Detection of neutrons
		A Inorganic neutron scintillators
		B Solid organic neutron scintillators
		C Neutron detectors with scintillating and optical fibers
			1 Scintillating fibers arrays
			2 Optical fiber-neutron detector arrays
	VII. Scintillation in plastic media
		A The scintillation process in plastic
		B Applications of plastic scintillators
	VIII. n/γ pulse shape discrimination
	IX. Bonner sphere neutron spectrometry
	X. Lucas cell
	XI. PHOSWICH detectors
		A Simultaneous counting of α-, β-, and γ-rays or α-, β(γ)-rays, and neutrons
		B Remote glass-fiber-coupled phoswiches
		C Low-level counters
		D Simultaneous counting of n/γ/p fields
		E Neutron spectrometry
		F Simultaneous beta- and gamma spectroscopy
		G Other phoswich detectors
		H Analytical expressions
	XII. Neutrino interactions
	XIII. Double beta (ββ) decay measurements
	XIV. Scintillating bolometers
		A Operating principle
		B Search for neutrinoless double beta (0νββ) decay
		C Search for weakly interacting massive particles
	References
	Further reading
	Michael F. L'Annunziata
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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