Handbook of Plasticizers

Front Matter......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 0
Table of Contents......Page 3
1.1 Historical Developments......Page 19
1.2 Expectations from Plasticizers......Page 20
1.3 Definitions......Page 22
References......Page 23
2.1 Introduction......Page 24
2.2.2 Adipates......Page 26
2.2.3 Alkyl Sulfonates......Page 29
2.2.4 Azelates......Page 30
2.2.5 Benzoates......Page 31
2.2.6 Chlorinated Paraffins......Page 33
2.2.7 Citrates......Page 36
2.2.8 Energetic Plasticizers......Page 37
2.2.9 Epoxides......Page 40
2.2.10 Glycol Ethers and their Esters......Page 42
2.2.11 Glutarates......Page 44
2.2.12 Hydrocarbon Oils......Page 45
2.2.13 Isobutyrates......Page 48
2.2.14 Oleates......Page 49
2.2.15 Pentaerythritol Derivatatives......Page 50
2.2.16 Phosphates......Page 51
2.2.17 Phthalates......Page 53
2.2.18.1 Esters......Page 61
2.2.18.2 Polybutenes......Page 63
2.2.19 Ricinoleates......Page 64
2.2.20 Sebacates......Page 65
2.2.21 Sulfonamides......Page 66
2.2.22 Superplasticizers and Plasticizers for Concrete......Page 68
2.2.23 Tri- and Pyromellitates......Page 69
2.2.24.2 Calcium Stearate......Page 71
2.2.24.5 Fluorine-Containing Plasticizers......Page 72
2.2.24.7 Isocyanate Adducts......Page 73
2.2.24.9 Natural Product Derivatives......Page 75
2.2.24.12 Tar-Based Products......Page 76
2.3 Methods of Synthesis and Their Effect on Properties of Plasticizers......Page 77
2.4 Reactive Plasticizers and Internal Plasticization......Page 83
References......Page 84
3.1 Abbreviations, Terminology, and Vocabulary......Page 89
3.5 Brittleness Temperature......Page 90
3.7 Chemical Resistance......Page 91
3.8 Color......Page 92
3.11 Concrete Additives......Page 93
3.15 Fogging......Page 94
3.18 Hardness......Page 95
3.20 Kinematic Viscosity......Page 96
3.23 Migration......Page 97
3.26 Purity......Page 99
3.29 Sampling......Page 100
3.32 Sorption of Plasticizer......Page 101
3.34 Specification......Page 102
3.36 Stiffness......Page 103
3.38 Thermal Expansion Coefficient......Page 105
3.40 Viscosity of Plastisols and Organosols......Page 106
3.42 Weight Loss......Page 107
References......Page 108
4.1 Transportation......Page 114
4.2 Storage......Page 118
References......Page 120
5.1 Classical Theories......Page 121
5.1.1 The Lubricity Theory......Page 122
5.1.2 The Gel Theory......Page 124
5.1.3 Moorshead's Empirical Approach......Page 126
5.2 The Free Volume Theory......Page 127
5.2.1 Mathematical Models......Page 131
References......Page 133
6.1 Compatibility Concepts......Page 135
6.1.1 Thermodynamic Treatment......Page 136
6.1.2 Interaction Parameter......Page 138
6.1.3 Effect of Chemical Structure of Plasticizers and Matrix......Page 139
6.2.1 Solubility Parameter Concept......Page 142
6.2.2 Experimental Evaluation of Solubility Parameters of Plasticizers......Page 145
6.2.3 Methods of Experimental Evaluation and Calculation of Solubility Parameters of Polymers......Page 146
6.2.3 The Methods of Calculation of Solubility Parameters......Page 148
6.2.4 Multi-Dimensional Approaches......Page 150
6.3.1 How Much Plasticizer is Necessary for a Polymer Composition?......Page 153
6.3.2 Initial Experimental Estimation of Compatibility......Page 154
6.3.3 Thermodynamic Compatibility......Page 155
6.4 Practical Approaches in Using Theory of Compatibility for Plasticizers Selection......Page 156
6.5.1 Influence of Compatibility on the Physical Stability of the Plasticized Polymer......Page 159
6.5.3 Influence of Compatibility on Mechanical and Physical Properties of Plasticized Polymer......Page 161
References......Page 162
7.1 Plasticizer Diffusion Rate and the Methods of Study......Page 165
7.2 Plasticizer Motion and Distribution in Matrix......Page 168
7.3 Plasticizer Migration......Page 170
7.4 Plasticizer Distribution in Materials in Contact......Page 174
7.5 Antiplasticization......Page 179
References......Page 182
8.1 Plasticizer Consumption by Fillers......Page 184
8.2 Solubility of Additives in Plasticizers......Page 185
8.3 Additive Molecular Mobility and Transport in the Presence of Plasticizers......Page 186
8.4 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymerization and Curing Reactions......Page 188
References......Page 190
9.1 Plasticization Steps......Page 191
9.2.1 Rheological Characterization......Page 192
9.2.2 Studies by Scanning Electron Microscopy......Page 195
9.2.3 Study of Polymer-Plasticizer Interactions by DSC......Page 197
9.2.5 Study of Polymer-Plasticizer Interactions by FTIR......Page 198
9.2.6 Study of Polymer-Plasticizer Interactions by TGA......Page 200
References......Page 203
10.1.1 Tensile Strength......Page 205
10.1.2 Elongation......Page 210
10.1.3 Hardness......Page 211
10.1.4 Toughness, Stiffness, Ductility, Modulus......Page 212
10.1.5 Other Mechanical Properties......Page 213
10.2 Optical Properties......Page 214
10.3 Spectral Properties......Page 215
10.4.1 Torque Measurement in Mixers......Page 217
10.4.2 Capillary Viscometers......Page 218
10.4.3 Dynamic Experiments......Page 219
10.4.4 Rheology of PVC Plastisols......Page 221
10.4.4.1 Flow Properties......Page 222
10.4.4.2 Gelation and Fusion......Page 223
10.4.4.3 Recycling of PVC Plastisols......Page 225
10.5 Electrical Properties......Page 226
10.6 Influence of Plasticizers on the Glass Transition Temperature of Polymers......Page 230
10.7 Flammability and Smoke Formation in the Presence of Plasticizers......Page 239
10.8 Thermal Degradation......Page 242
10.8.1 Thermal Degradation of Plasticizer......Page 243
10.8.3 Effect of Plasticizer Degradation Products on Polymer Degradation......Page 244
10.8.4 Loss of Plasticizer from Material Due to the Chemical Decomposition Reactions and Evaporation......Page 246
10.8.5 Effect of Plasticizers on the Thermal Degradation of Material......Page 248
10.9 Effect of UV and Ionized Radiation on Plasticized Materials......Page 250
10.10. Biodegradation in the Presence of Plasticizers......Page 253
10.11 Crystallization, Structure, and Orientation of Macromolecules with and without Plasticizers......Page 255
10.12 Plasticizer Effect on Contact with other Materials......Page 258
10.13.1 Change of Elastic Properties of Elastomers on Swelling in Liquids of Different Polarity......Page 260
10.13.3 Influence of Swelling on Tensile Strength and Critical Strain of Elastic Materials......Page 266
10.14 Effect of Plasticizers on Other Properties......Page 276
References......Page 278
11.1.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 285
11.2.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 286
11.2.4 Mechanism of Plasticizer Action......Page 287
11.3.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 289
11.5.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 290
11.5.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 291
11.5.4 Mechanism of Plasticizer Action......Page 292
11.5.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 293
11.6.4 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 294
11.7.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 295
11.8 Chlorinated Polyvinylchloride......Page 296
11.10.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 298
11.10.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 299
11.10.4 Mechanism of Plasticizer Action......Page 300
11.12.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 301
11.13.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 302
11.13.4 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 303
11.15.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 304
11.15.4 Mechanism of Plasticizer Action......Page 305
11.15.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 306
11.16.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 308
11.17 Polyacrylonitrile......Page 309
11.18.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 310
11.19 Polyamine......Page 311
11.20 Polyaniline......Page 312
11.22.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 313
11.24.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 314
11.25.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 315
11.25.5 Typical Formulations......Page 317
11.28.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 318
11.28.5 Typical Formulations......Page 319
11.29.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 320
11.30 Polyisobutylene......Page 321
11.32.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 322
11.32.4 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 323
11.33.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 324
11.33.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 326
11.34.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 327
11.35.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 328
11.35.4 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 329
11.37.4 Mechanism of Plasticizer Action......Page 330
11.37.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 332
11.38 Polysulfone......Page 333
11.40 Poly(Phenylene Sulfide)......Page 334
11.41.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 335
11.41.4 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 336
11.42.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 337
11.42.4 Typical Formulations......Page 338
11.43.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 339
11.44.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 340
11.44.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 342
11.44.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 343
11.44.4 Mechanism of Plasticizer Action......Page 345
11.44.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Polymer and Other Additives......Page 348
11.44.6 Typical Formulations......Page 354
11.45.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 357
11.47.1 The Mechanism of the Specific Action of Plasticizers and Its Effect on Polyurethanes Properties......Page 358
11.47.2 Principles of a Plasticizer Selection......Page 365
11.48.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 366
11.48.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 367
11.48.4 Typical Formulations......Page 368
11.49.1 Frequently Used Plasticizers......Page 369
11.49.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 370
11.49.5 Typical Formulations......Page 371
11.50.3 Typical Formulations......Page 373
11.52.1 Frequently used Plasticizers......Page 374
11.52.2 Practical Concentrations......Page 375
11.52.3 Main Functions Performed by Plasticizers......Page 376
11.52.5 Typical Formulations......Page 377
References......Page 378
12.1 Plasticizer Partition Between Component Polymers......Page 392
12.2 Interaction of Plasticizers with Blend Components......Page 394
12.3 Effect of Plasticizers on Blend Properties......Page 395
12.4 Blending to Reduce or to Replace Plasticizers......Page 398
References......Page 399
13.1.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 400
13.1.2 Plasticizer Concentration......Page 403
13.1.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 404
13.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 405
13.1.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Product Properties......Page 406
13.1.6 Examples of Formulations......Page 407
13.2 Aerospace......Page 409
13.3 Agriculture......Page 410
13.4.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 411
13.5.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 412
13.5.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 413
13.5.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Product Properties......Page 414
13.6 Coated Fabrics......Page 415
13.6.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 416
13.6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 417
13.6.6 Examples of Formulations......Page 418
13.7.2 Plasticizer Concentration......Page 419
13.7.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 420
13.7.6 Examples of Formulations......Page 421
13.8.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 422
13.9.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 423
13.9.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 424
13.10.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 425
13.11.2 Plasticizer Concentration......Page 426
13.11.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 427
13.12.2 Plasticizer Concentration......Page 428
13.12.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 429
13.12.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Product Properties......Page 430
13.12.6 Examples of Formulations......Page 431
13.13.5 Examples of Formulations......Page 432
13.14.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 433
13.14.5 Examples of Formulations......Page 434
13.15.2 Plasticizer Concentration......Page 435
13.16.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 436
13.17.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 437
13.17.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 438
13.17.5 Examples of Formulations......Page 439
13.18.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 440
13.18.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Product Properties......Page 441
13.19.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 443
13.20.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 444
13.20.2 Plasticizer Concentration......Page 445
13.20.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 446
13.20.5 Examples of Formulations......Page 447
13.21.2 Plasticizer Concentration......Page 448
13.21.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 449
13.21.5 Effect of Plasticizers on Product Properties......Page 450
13.22.1 Plasticizer Types......Page 451
13.23.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 452
13.23.6 Examples of Formulations......Page 453
13.24.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 454
13.24.5 Examples of Formulations......Page 455
13.25.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 456
13.25.5 Examples of Formulations......Page 457
13.26 Toys......Page 458
13.26.1 Migration of Plasticizers......Page 459
13.26.2 Substitutes to Phthalates......Page 461
13.27.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Plasticizers Use......Page 462
13.28.3 Reasons for Plasticizer Use......Page 463
13.28.6 Examples of Formulations......Page 464
References......Page 466
14.1 Blow Molding......Page 482
14.2 Calendering......Page 485
14.3 Coil Coating......Page 488
14.4 Compression Molding......Page 489
14.5 Compounding (Mixing)......Page 491
14.5 Dip Coating......Page 493
14.6 Dry Blending......Page 495
14.7 Extrusion......Page 497
14.8 Injection Molding......Page 500
14.9 Polymer Synthesis......Page 502
14.10.1 Description of the Rotation Molding Process......Page 503
14.10.2 Tooling......Page 505
14.10.3 Plasticizers in Rotational Molding......Page 506
14.11 Rubber Processing......Page 512
14.13 Web Coating......Page 515
References......Page 518
15.1 Plasticizer Identification......Page 523
15.2 Methods of Determination of Plasticizer Concentration......Page 525
15.3 Determination of Volatility, Molecular Motion, Diffusion, and Migration of Plasticizers......Page 526
15.4 Methods of Study of Plasticized Materials......Page 528
References......Page 530
16.1 PVC-Plasticizer Interaction Model......Page 532
16.3 Migration......Page 534
16.4 Dry-Blending Time......Page 536
16.5 Gelation and Fusion......Page 537
References......Page 539
17.1.2 Airway Allergy......Page 540
17.1.3 The Immune System......Page 541
17.1.5 Environmental Adjuvants......Page 542
17.1.7.2 Results......Page 543
17.1.8 Human Exposure and Hazard Evaluation......Page 545
17.1.10 Conclusions and Practical Applications......Page 546
References......Page 547
17.2.2.2 Cancer Biology: Some Basic Considerations......Page 548
17.2.2.3 Chemical Carcinogenesis......Page 549
17.2.3.2 Ppar......Page 550
17.2.4 Species Differences in Response to PPS......Page 551
17.2.5 Summary......Page 552
References......Page 553
17.3.1 Introduction......Page 554
17.3.2 Reproductive Toxicity of BBP and DEHP......Page 555
17.3.3 Acute Phase Response-Induced Alterations in Maternal and Conceptus Nutrient Metabolism......Page 557
References......Page 562
17.4.1 Introduction......Page 566
17.4.2 Exposure to Adults in the General Population......Page 567
17.4.3.1 Children......Page 568
17.4.3.4 Medical Exposure......Page 570
17.4.4 Health Effects of Phthalate Exposure......Page 571
17.4.5 Us NTP Expert Panel Conclusions......Page 573
17.4.6 Public Health Implications......Page 574
References......Page 575
17.5.1 Introduction......Page 577
17.5.2 Sources of Indoor Plasticizers......Page 578
17.5.3.1 Indoor Air......Page 581
17.5.3.2 House Dust......Page 584
17.5.4.1 Indoor Plasticizers and Health......Page 588
17.5.4.2 Human Exposure Assessment for Plasticizers in the Indoor Environment......Page 590
17.5.4.3 Reference and Guideline Values of Plasticizers to Assess Indoor Quality......Page 593
17.5.5 Summary......Page 594
References......Page 595
Addendum - List of Abbreviations......Page 598
18.1 Introduction......Page 599
18.1.2 Levels in the Environment......Page 600
18.2.1 Solubility......Page 605
18.2.2 Volatilization from Water......Page 606
18.2.4 Biodegradation in Water......Page 609
18.2.5 Adsorption from Water......Page 610
18.3.1 Volatilization......Page 612
18.3.2 Biodegradation in Soil......Page 614
18.4. Organisms......Page 616
18.5 Air......Page 618
Summary and Concluding Remarks......Page 619
References......Page 620
19.1 Toxic Substance Control......Page 622
19.2. Carcinogenic Effect......Page 625
19.3 Teratogenic and Mutagenic Effect......Page 626
19.4 Workplace Exposure Limits......Page 627
19.5 Exposure from Consumer Products......Page 629
19.6 Plasticizers in Drinking Water......Page 631
19.7 Food Regulatory Acts......Page 632
References......Page 635
20.1 Clothing......Page 637
20.2 Gloves......Page 638
20.3 Eye Protection......Page 640
20.4 Respiratory Protection......Page 641
References......Page 644
21. Plasticizer Recovery and Recycling......Page 645
References......Page 650
A......Page 651
B......Page 653
C......Page 655
D......Page 659
E......Page 662
F......Page 665
G......Page 667
H......Page 668
I......Page 670
K......Page 671
L......Page 672
M......Page 673
N......Page 675
O......Page 676
P......Page 677
Q......Page 683
R......Page 684
S......Page 685
T......Page 689
V......Page 692
Z......Page 693