Handbook of Particle Detection and Imaging

Foreword
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I Basic Principles of Detectors and Accelerators
	1 Interactions of Particles and Radiation with Matter
		Contents
		Introduction
		Penetration of Charged Particles Through Matter
			Energy and Angular Spectra of Delta-Electrons
			Energy Loss by Ionization and Excitation
			Fluctuations of Ionization Losses
			Multiple Scattering of Charged Particles
			Channeling
			Radiation Losses, Radiation Length, and Critical Energy
			Charged Particle Range Due to Ionization Losses
			Cherenkov and Transition Radiation
		Penetration of High Energy Photons in Matter
			Photoelectric Effect
			Compton Effect
			Production of Electron-Positron Pairs
			Photon Flux Attenuation by Material
		Electron-Photon Cascades
		Nuclear Interactions of Hadrons with Matter
		Neutrino Interactions with Matter
		Conclusion and Further Reading
		References
	2 Electronics Part I
		Contents
		Why Understand Electronics?
		Detector Types
		Signal Fluctuations
		Signal Formation
		Electronic Noise
			Electronic Noise Levels
			Noise in Amplifiers
			Noise Versus Dynamic Range
		Signal Charge Measurements
			Charge-Sensitive Amplifiers
			Noise in a Charge-Sensitive Amplifier System
			Realistic Charge-Sensitive Amplifiers
		Detector Equivalent Circuits
			Thermistor Detecting IR Radiation
			Piezoelectric Transducer
			Ionization Chamber
			Position-Sensitive Detector with Resistive Charge Division
		Summary
		References
	3 Electronics Part II
		Contents
		Basic Principles of Signal Processing
		Signal Processing
		Noise Analysis of a Detector–Preamplifier–Shaper System
		Timing Measurements
		Digital Electronics
			Logic Elements
			Propagation Delays and Power Dissipation
			Logic Arrays
		Analog-to-Digital Conversion
		Time-to-Digital Converters (TDCs)
		Digital Signal Processing
		Summary
		References
	4 Data Analysis
		Contents
		Introduction
		From Raw Data to Physics Objects
			Basics of Track Finding
			Energy Reconstruction in Calorimeters
			The Particle Flow Approach
			Jet Algorithms
			Further Higher-Level Algorithms
			Simulations
		Examples from e+e- and Hadron Colliders
			Ratio of the Hadronic and Leptonic Cross Sections in e+e- Annihilations
			Jet Production in Hadron Collisions
		Applications of Modern Machine Learning Techniques
		Computing and Software Aspects
		Summary
		Further Reading
		Cross-References
		References
	5 Statistics
		Contents
		Introduction
		Probability
		Random Variables
		Parameter Estimation
			Estimators for Mean, Variance, and Median
			The Method of Maximum Likelihood
			The Method of Least Squares
			The Bayesian Approach
		Statistical Tests
			Hypothesis Tests
			Significance Tests
			Bayesian Model Selection
		Intervals and Limits
			Bayesian Intervals
			Frequentist Confidence Intervals
				Profile Likelihood and Treatment of Nuisance Parameters
				Gaussian-Distributed Measurements
				Poisson or Binomial Data
		Conclusions
		References
	6 Particle Identification
		Contents
		Introduction
		Radiation by Charged Particles
		Particle Identification in Calorimeters
		Time of Flight (ToF)
		Specific Energy Loss dE/dx
		Transition Radiation Detectors (TRD)
		Cherenkov Radiation
			Threshold Cherenkov Detectors
			Ring Imaging
		Muon Identification
		Neutrinos
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	7 Accelerators for Particle Physics
		Contents
		Introduction
		Basic Concepts and Units
		Magnet Lattice
			Dispersion and Chromaticity
		Sources and Pre-injectors
		RF Acceleration
		Ring Accelerators
		Phase Stability
			Applications of Accelerators
		Fixed-Target Accelerators and Colliders
		Energy and Luminosity
		Vacuum and Beam Lifetime
		Synchrotron Radiation
		The Highest Energies
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	8 Accelerator-Based Photon Sources
		Contents
		A Brief History of Radiation Sources
		Generation of  Synchrotron Radiation
			Radiation from Accelerated Electrons
			Acceleration of Electrons to Ultrarelativistic Energies
				Conventional Electron Linacs
				Superconducting Linacs and Energy Recovery
				Synchrotrons
				Electron Storage Rings
				Electron Beam Optics
				Radiation Effects
			Insertion Devices
				Wavelength Shifters and Superbends
				Wigglers and Undulators
			Synchrotron Radiation Sources Worldwide
		Applications of Synchrotron Radiation
			Diffraction
			Spectroscopy
			Imaging
			Other Applications
				Time-Resolved Studies
				Far-Infrared Radiation
				X-Ray Holography
				Metrology
				X-Ray Lithography
		The New Generation
			Storage Rings
			Linac-Based Free-Electron Lasers
			Energy Recovery Linacs
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
		Further Reading
	9 Calibration of Radioactive Sources
		Contents
		Introduction
		Radioactive Decay
			Alpha Decay
			Beta- Decay
			Beta+ Decay
			Electron Capture
			Gamma Decay
			Internal Conversion (IC)
		Activity Standards
		Decay Counting Methods for Primary Activity Standardization
		Other Methods for Primary Activity Standardization
		Secondary Methods for the Calibration of Activity Standards
		International Comparability of Activity Standards
		Conclusions
		References
	10 Radiation Protection
		Contents
		Introduction
		Units of Radiation Protection
		Basic Nuclear Physics
		Basic Interactions
		Range of Particles
		Radiation Sources
			Particle Radiation
			Photon Sources
			Neutron Sources
			Cosmic-Ray Sources
		Radiation Detectors
		Safety Standards
		Organization of Radiation Protection
		Environmental Radiation
		Biological Effects of Radiation
		Applications of Radiation
			Medical Applications
			Metabolism of Plutonium
			Radiation-Resistant Organisms
			Waste Transmutation
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
		Further Reading
		Suppliers of Radiation-Protection Equipment
Part II Specific Types of Detectors
	11 Gaseous Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
		Basic Principles: Ionization, Transport Phenomena and Avalanche Multiplication
		The Multi-Wire Proportional, Drift, and Time Projection Chambers
		Micro-Pattern Gaseous Detectors
		Micro-Pattern Gaseous Detector Applications
		Overview of the CERN-RD51 Collaboration
		Future R&D Program for Advanced MPGD Concepts
		Summary and Outlook
		Cross-References
		Bibliography
	12 Tracking Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
		Gaseous Detectors
			Wire Chambers
			Micro-pattern Gas Detectors
			Time Projection Chambers
		Silicon Detectors
			Silicon Strip Detectors
			Hybrid Pixel Detectors
		Other Tracking Detectors
		Integration in Experiments
			Fixed-Target Experiments
			Collider Experiments
			Detector Alignment
		Event Reconstruction
			Pattern Recognition
			Track Fitting
			Vertex Reconstruction
		Performance Optimization
		Summary
		Acknowledgments
		Appendix: Formulae
			Kalman Track Fitting
			Kalman Vertex Fitting
			Robust Vertex Fitting
			Helix Tracking Coordinates
		Cross-References
		References
		Further Reading
	13 Photon Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
			General Properties of Photon Detectors
		Vacuum Photodetectors
			Photomultiplier Tubes
			Microchannel Plate Photomultiplier Tube
			Hybrid Photodetectors
		Gaseous Photon Detectors
		Solid-State Photon Detectors
		Conclusion
		References
	14 Neutrino Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
			Overview of Neutrino Sources
			Important Neutrino Properties
		Reactor Antineutrino Experiments
			The Reines-Cowan Experiment: Discovery of the Neutrino
			Discovery of Long-Baseline Oscillations in KamLAND
			The Hunt for the Mixing Angle θ13: Double-Chooz
			Very Short-Baseline Searches for Sterile Neutrinos: PROSPECT
		Solar Neutrino Experiments
			Early Radiochemical Experiments
				Discovery of Solar Neutrinos in the Homestake Experiment
				The Gallium Experiments and the Solar Neutrino Problem
			Pointing at the Sun: Kamiokande
			Neutrino Flavor-Resolved Detection in SNO
			Solar Neutrino Spectroscopy with Borexino
		Atmospheric and Accelerator Neutrino Experiments
			Atmospheric Neutrinos in Super-Kamiokande
			Search for ντ Appearance in OPERA
			A First Glimpse at Leptonic CP Violation in NOvA
		Neutrino Telescopes
			First Glimpse at Cosmic Neutrinos with IceCube
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	15 Scintillators and Scintillation Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
		Characteristics of Scintillators
			Interaction of Radiation with Scintillators
			Processes Governing the Generation and Decay of Light Pulses
			Resolution
			Considerations in Matching Scintillators to Photosensors
		Scintillators
			Inorganic Crystals
			Organic Scintillators
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	16 Semiconductor Radiation Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
		Definitions
			Energy Band Gap
			Charge Carrier Concentration
			Dopant Impurities
			Carrier Mobility
			Carrier Lifetime
			Material Resistivity
		Basic Detector Configurations
			pn Junction
			pin Junction Devices
			Schottky Devices
			Ohmic Contacts
			Resistive Devices
			Photoconductive Devices
			Operation
		Gamma-Ray and X-Ray Spectrometers
			X-ray Detectors Based Upon Si
				Basic Design
			Detectors Based Upon Ge
				Various Designs
			Compound Semiconductor Detectors
				CdTe
				CdZnTe
				HgI2
		Charged Particle Detectors
			Surface Barrier and Implanted Junction Detectors
		Neutron Detectors
		Summary
		Cross-References
		References
		Further Reading
		Semiconductor Radiation Detector Suppliers
	17 Silicon Photomultipliers
		Contents
		Introduction
			Applications
			Properties of SiPMs
		SiPM Design and Static Parameters
			Doping Profile
			Static Parameters
		SiPM Response
			Signal Formation
			Gain
			Response to Low Light Intensity
			Non-linear Response and Dynamic Range
		SiPM Performance
			Photo-detection Efficiency
			Single-Photon Time Resolution
			Noise
				Dark Count Rate
				Correlated Noise
		Radiation Damage
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	18 Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
		Contents
		Introduction
		Basic Concepts
		Detector Response Models
		Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
			Gamma-Ray and x Ray Spectral Features
				Photoelectric Effect Features
				Compton Scattering Features
				Backscatter Features
				Pair Production Features
				Fluorescent X Ray Features
				Summary
			Spectral Response Function
		Qualitative Analysis
		Quantitative Analysis
			Area Under an Isolated Peak
			Model Fitting
			General Linear Least-Squares Model Fitting
			Nonlinear Least-Squares Model Fitting
				Isolated Peaks
				Overlapping Peaks
			Spectrum Stripping
			Library Least-Squares
				Nonlinear Spectra
			Symbolic Monte Carlo
			Compton Suppression
		More About Spectroscopy Measurements
			Channel Calibration
			Spectroscopy Quality Metrics
				Detection Efficiency
					Total Intrinsic Detection Efficiency
					Intrinsic Peak Efficiency
					Escape Peak Efficiency
					Energy Resolution
					Peak-to-Compton Ratio
					Peak-to-Valley Ratio
					Peak-to-Total Ratio
		Detectors for Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
			Scintillation Spectrometers
				Inorganic Scintillators
					NaI(Tl) Scintillation Detectors
					Other Inorganic Scintillation Detectors
				Light Collection
					Photomultiplier Tubes
					Microchannel Plates
					Photodiodes
					Silicon Photomultipliers
				Factors Affecting Energy Resolution
			Semiconductor Spectrometers
				Ge Detectors
				Si Detectors
				Compound Semiconductor Detectors
					HgI2, CdTe, and CdZnTe Detectors
				Factors Affecting Energy Resolution
			Cryogenic Spectrometers (Microcalorimeters)
			Crystal Diffractometers (Wavelength-Dispersive Spectroscopy)
		Summary
		Cross-References
		References
		Further Reading
		Radiation Spectrometer Suppliers
	19 Cherenkov Radiation
		Contents
		Introduction
		Basic Cherenkov Theory
		Cherenkov Counters
			Cherenkov Counter Components: Radiators
			Cherenkov Counter Components: Detectors
		Counter Types
			Threshold Counters
			Imaging Counters
		Examples of Cherenkov Counters
			Accelerator-Based Particle Identification Detectors
				Threshold Cherenkov Counters
				Imaging Cherenkov Counters: RICH
			Astroparticle Physics
				Underground Neutrino Detectors
				Neutrino Detectors in Natural Water or Ice
				High Energy Cosmic Ray Shower Detection with Cherenkov Light
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	20 Muon Spectrometers
		Contents
		Introduction
		General Considerations
		Magnetic Spectrometers
			Magnets
			Tracking Detectors
		Muon Detectors at Accelerator-Based Experiments
			Drift-Tube Detectors
			Resistive-Plate Chambers (RPC)
			Multi-Wire Chambers
		Muon Spectrometers for Cosmic Ray Measurements
			Atmospheric Muon Detectors
			Air Shower Detector Arrays
		Muon Radiography
		Conclusions
		References
	21 Calorimeters
		Contents
		Introduction
		Basic Principles of Particle Interaction
			Interaction of e, μ, and Photons
			Interaction of Hadrons with Matter
			Particle Showers
				Electromagnetic Cascades
				Hadronic Cascades
		Calorimetric Measurements: Response, Resolution, and Additional Capabilities
			Response
			Energy Resolution
			Additional Capabilities
		Calorimeter Types
			Calorimeter Concepts and Design
			Electromagnetic Calorimeters
			Hadronic Calorimeters
			The Role of Simulations
		Conceptual Refinements
			Dual Readout
			High Granularity and Particle Flow
				Particle Flow Approach
				High Granularity
		Selected Other Calorimeter Types
		Concluding Remark
		Cross-References
		References
	22 New Solid State Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
		Radiation Environment at Contemporary Hadron Accelerators
		Artificial Diamond as a Sensor Material
			Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD) Diamond
				Production of Artificial Diamond
			Diamonds as Solid State Detectors
			Charge Collection in Polycrystalline CVD Diamonds
			Radiation Effects
				The Beam Conditions Monitor of the LHCb Experiment: An Application Example
		Cadmium Telluride and Cadmium Zinc Telluride as Sensor Materials
		New Passive Thermoluminescence Detectors
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	23 Radiation Damage Effects
		Contents
		Introduction
		Scintillation Mechanism Damage
		Radiation-Induced Phosphorescence and Energy Equivalent Readout Noise
		Radiation-Induced Absorption
			Recovery of Radiation-Induced Absorption
			Radiation-Induced Color Centers
			Dose Rate Dependence and Color Center Kinetics
		Light Output Degradation
			Ionization Dose–Induced Radiation Damage
			Proton-Induced Radiation Damage
			Neutron-Induced Radiation Damage
		Light Response Uniformity
		Damage Mechanism in Alkali Halide Crystals and CsI:Tl Development
		Damage Mechanism in Oxide Crystals and PWO Development
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	24 Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) Pixel Sensors
		Contents
		Introduction
		Technology of CPS
			A Brief Introduction into the CMOS Technology
			The Sensing Element of CMOS Sensors
			Signal Processing
				On-Pixel Signal Amplification
				Signal Encoding
			Noise and Noise Optimization
			Readout Approaches
				The Rolling-Shutter Readout Scheme
				Column Parallel Rolling Shutter
				Asynchronous Readout
		Sensor Performances
			Response to Photons
			Response to Charged Particles
			Performances of CPS
		Device Modeling
		Radiation Tolerance
			Ionizing Radiation Damage in CPS
			Non-ionizing Radiation Damage in CPS
			Random Telegraph Signal and Hot Pixels
		Vertex Detectors Based on CPS
			Role of Vertex Detectors
			Technology and Integration of Vertex Detectors Based on CPS
		Summary and Perspectives
		Cross-References
		References
Part III Applications of Detectors in Particle and Astroparticle Physics, Security, Environment, and Art
	25 Astrophysics and Space Instrumentation
		Contents
		Introduction
		Photon Instruments
			X-Ray Calorimeters
			Grazing Incidence Optics
			Coded Aperture Masks
			Pair Conversion
		Cosmic-Ray Instruments
			Time-of-Flight Versus Energy Measurements
			dE/dx Versus Total Energy
			Magnetic Rigidity Spectrometers
			Calorimeters
			Large-Area Composition Experiments
			Indirect Measurements
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	26 Indirect Detection of Cosmic Rays
		Contents
		Introduction
		Phenomenology of Extensive Air Showers
			Photon-Induced Showers
			Hadron-Induced Showers
			Neutrino-Induced Showers
		Measurement Techniques and Observables
			Particle Detector Arrays
			Atmospheric Cherenkov Light Detectors
			Fluorescence Telescopes
			Radio Signal Detection
		Examples of Air Shower Detectors
			KASCADE
			HAWC
			Tunka
			H.E.S.S.
			The Pierre Auger Observatory
		Open Problems and Future Experiments
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
		Further Reading
	27 Gravitational Wave Detectors
		Contents
		Introduction
		The Experimental Challenges
		Searching for Gravitational Waves – Resonant Bars
		Searching for Gravitational Waves: Interferometric Detectors – The Idea
		Long Baseline Suspended Mass Interferometers
		The LIGO Interferometers
		The Virgo Interferometer
		Advanced LIGO and Virgo
		The Detection of Gravitational Waves: The First Event
		Future Ground-Based Detectors
		Gravitational Waves in Space and Pulsar Timing Array
		References
	28 Technology for Border Security
		Contents
		Introduction
		Components of Security Systems
			Passenger Portals
				Passive Passenger Portals
				Active Mm-Wave Passenger Portal Technology
				Active Devices: Metal Detectors
				Active Devices: X-Ray Passenger Portals
				Active Devices: Liquid and Bottle Scanners
			X-Ray Baggage, Pallet, and Container Systems
				X-Ray Baggage, Pallet, and Container Systems: Gray Scale Images
				X-Ray Baggage, Pallet, and Container Systems: Materials Discrimination
				X-Ray Baggage, Pallet, and Container Systems: Materials Discrimination: Diffraction Systems
		Examples
			The Performance of X-Ray Baggage Systems
			X-Ray Pallet and Air Cargo Systems
			X-Ray Shipping Container Examination Systems
			X-Ray and Neutron Examination System
		Ancillary Technologies
		Protocols: Passenger, Air Cargo/Pallet, Shipping Containers
		Conclusions
		References
	29 Radiation Detection Technology for Homeland Security
		Contents
		Introduction
		Threat Detection
		Radiation Sources
			Background Radiation Sources
			Radioactive Materials in Commerce
			Medical Radioisotopes
			Industrial Radiation Sources
			Special Nuclear Materials
			Electromagnetic Interference Effects
		Radiation Detection Mechanisms
			Gamma-Ray Detection
			Neutron Detection
		Radiation Detection Standards
			US Standards
			International Standards and Specifications
		Radiation Interdiction Approach
			Radiation Detection for Interdiction
			Instrumentation Options
				Options Considered for Scanning at Mail and Package Facilities
				Options for Land Borders
				Options for Airports
				Options for Seaports
		Instruments and Capabilities
			Radiation Portal Monitor Systems
			Small Detection Systems
			Imaging Systems
			Muon Scatter Systems
			Active Interrogation Techniques
				Induced Fission Active Interrogation
				Nuclear Resonance Florescence
				Active Interrogation Implementation
		Challenges to Radiological Interdiction
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	30 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry and Its Applications in Archaeology, Geology, and Environmental Research
		Contents
		Introduction
		The Methodology of Accelerator Mass Spectrometry
			Typical AMS Setup
			Determination of Calendar Age
			Sample Preparation
				Pretreatment of Sediment Samples
				Pretreatment of Bones
				Pretreatment of Archaeological Samples
				Combustion to CO2 and Reduction to Carbon
		Applications of Radiocarbon Measurements to Interdisciplinary Research
			Sediment Dating
			Environmental Studies
			Archaeological Samples
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	31 Geoscientific Applications of Particle Detection and Imaging Techniques with Special Focus on Monitoring Clay Mineral Reactions
		Contents
		Introduction
		Characterization of Clay Minerals Reactions
		Application of Electron- and Focused-Ion-Beam Microscopy
		Applications to the Disposal of Nuclear Waste: Reactions in Bentonites
			X-Ray Diffraction Study of Bentonite Hydration Under Conditions of Varying Humidity
			Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy
			Wet-Cell X-Ray Diffractometry
		Applications to the Storage of CO2: Reactions in Shales and Sandstones
			Three-Dimensional Reconstruction Using Combined Ion- and Electron-Beam Microscopy
		Conclusions and Outlook
		Cross-References
		Analytical Equipment Used in this Study
		References
	32 Particle Detectors Used in Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry, with Applications in Geology, Environmental Science, and Nuclear Forensics
		Contents
		Introduction
		Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
			Ion Sources
			Mass Analyzers
		Detectors
			Faraday Cups and Amplifiers
			Secondary Electron Multipliers
			The Daly Detector
			Energy Filters and Abundance Sensitivity
		Applications
			U–Pb Dating of Zircons by LA-MC-ICP-MS and ID-TIMS
			Depleted Uranium in Urine
			Nuclear Forensic Science
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	33 Particle Detectors in Materials Science
		Contents
		Introduction
		Detector Application in Materials Science
		The Low-Temperature Synthesis of Diamond Films
		Structure Characterization: SEM, TEM, XRD, and Raman
		Properties/Applications: Electron Field Emission
		Material Development for Particle Detection
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	34 Spallation: Neutrons Beyond Nuclear Fission
		Contents
		Introduction: Fission Versus Spallation
			The Fission Reactor
			Source Strength S
			Early Reactor Development
			Technical Limitations
		Neutron Sources: Why Not Pulsed?
			The Two Essentials in Neutron Scattering: Single-Crystal and Time-of-Flight Techniques
			Pulsed Reactors or What Else?
		Spallation: The Future for Rapidly Pulsed Neutron Sources
			The Spallation Reaction
				Total Neutron Yield
				Spectral Distribution
				Source Distribution, Proton Mean Free Path, and Range
				Heat Deposition
			Technical Details of a Pulsed Spallation Source
				The Accelerator
					Choice of Proton Energy
					Proton-Current Requirements: A Source-Strength Estimate
				The Target: Solid or Liquid?
				The Moderators
					Peak and Time-Average Neutron Flux
					Numerical Example
					Moderator Requirements
					Moderator Tailoring
			Examples of Spallation Sources
				The US Spallation Neutron Source SNS
					The Components of the Accelerator
					Ion Source and Linac
					Accumulator (Compressor) Ring
					Target Building
				The European Spallation Source (ESS)
		Experimental Methods at Spallation Neutron Sources
			Epithermal Neutrons: An Important Reason for Ultra-Short ProtonPulses
			Spectroscopy at High Energy Transfers
			Powder Diffractometry at Pulsed Sources
			Neutron Powder Diffractometry in the History of Arts
			Neutron Radiography
		Spallation: Accelerator-Driven Nuclear Energy
			ADS Research and Development: The Belgian MYRRHA Project
				The Accelerator
				The Target
				The Subcritical Core
			Energy Amplifier
			Nuclear Waste Incineration
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	35 Neutron Detection
		Contents
		Introduction
		Fundamental Neutron Physics
			The Neutron
			Basic Neutron Interactions
			Neutron Generation
			Neutron Moderation
			Neutron Absorption and Shielding
			Metrology and Dosimetric Quantities
		Materials and Detector Types for Neutron Detection
			Neutron Detection Principles
			Active Neutron Detection Methods
				Gas-Filled Detectors
				Semiconductors
				Scintillators
				Superheated Emulsion Detectors
			Passive Neutron Detection Methods
				Track Detectors
				Thermoluminescent Dosimeters
				Etched-Track Detectors
				Passive Superheated Emulsion Detectors
				Direct Ion Storage
				Other Passive Detectors
		Applications of Neutron Detection
			Neutron Dose Measurement
				Introduction
				Rem Counters
				Tissue-Equivalent Proportional Counters
				Active Personal Dosimeters
				Passive Dose Measurement
				Dose Measurement in Pulsed Radiation Fields
				Examples of Neutron Dose Measurements
			Spectrometry
				General
				Bonner Spheres
				Time-of-Flight Spectroscopy
				Recoil Spectroscopy
			Neutron Activation Analysis
			Neutron Scattering
			Nuclear Medicine
			Search for Illicit Trafficking Nuclear Materials
			Reactor Instrumentation
			Fusion Monitoring
			Industrial Applications
				Neutron Imaging and Radiography
				Humidity Measurement
		Reference Neutron Radiation Fields
		Conclusion
		References
	36 Instrumentation for Nuclear Fusion
		Contents
		Introduction
		Basic Nuclear Fusion
		Diagnostic of Fusion Plasma
		Radiation Measurements
			Thermography
			Continuum Radiation
				Bolometry
				Soft-X-Ray Diagnostic
			Line Radiation
				Passive Spectroscopy
				Charge-Exchange Spectroscopy
				γ-Spectroscopy
			Particle Measurements
				Charge-Exchange Neutrals
				Neutron-Rate Measurements
				Neutron Spectroscopy
				Charged-Particle-Loss Diagnostic
		Special Requirements for ITER and Burning-Plasma Devices
			Spectroscopic Systems and Bolometry
			Fusion Products
		Conclusions and Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
	37 Use of Neutron Technology in Archaeological and Cultural Heritage Research
		Contents
		Introduction
		Technology
			Neutron Sources
			Detectors
		Neutron Interactions and Neutron Scattering Techniques
			Coherent Neutron Scattering
				Small-Angle Neutron Scattering (SANS)
				Neutron Reflectometry and Grazing-Incidence Diffraction (GID)
				Neutron Diffraction
			Incoherent Scattering: Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA)
			Total Neutron Scattering: Imaging
				Two-Dimensional Imaging
				Three-Dimensional Imaging: Computed Tomography (CT)
		Selected Applications
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	38 Radiation Detectors and Art
		Contents
		Introduction and Motivation
		Proton Induced X-Ray Emission: PIXE
			Basic Principles
			High-Energy PIXE
			PIGE
			Application to Art Objects
		Experimental Setup for Art Objects
		Examples
			Paintings
				Flemish Painting
				Modigliani Portrait
			Metals
				Silver Coins: Wiener Pfennig
				Gold Scarab
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
Part IV Applications of Particle Detectors in Medicine
	39 Radiation-Based Medical Imaging Techniques: An Overview
		Contents
		Introduction
		Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging
			Sensitivity Versus Resolution in Imaging
			SPECT Versus PET
		Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT)
			Conventional Gamma Camera and SPECT
			SPECT/CT
			Dedicated SPECT Systems
				Ultrafast Dedicated Cardiac Camera
				Breast Imaging with SPECT/CT
				Single-Pinhole and Coded Aperture Collimation Systems
			SPECT/MR
			Other Detector Types
		Positron Emission Tomography
			Standalone PET Imaging
				Sensitivity
				Resolution
				Quantitative Imaging
			Hybrid/Multimodality PET Imaging
				The Success Story of PET/CT
				Time-of-Flight (TOF) PET
				From PET/CT to PET/MR
			Dedicated PET Imaging Devices
				PET Mammography (PEM)
				Endoscopic PET Imaging
			Other PET Detectors
		Radiopharmaceuticals
			SPECT Radiopharmaceuticals
			PET Radiopharmaceuticals
			Theragnostic Radiopharmaceuticals
		Preclinical Imaging
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	40 CT Imaging: Basics and New Trends
		Contents
		Introduction
		Principles of X-Ray CT
			Physics of X-ray CT
			Data Acquisition
			Basics of Image Reconstruction
			Image Quality and Artifacts
			Iterative Reconstruction Methods
		Historical and Current Concepts of CT Technology
			Translation-Rotation CT: First and Second Generations
			Fan-Beam CT: Third and Fourth Generations
			Spiral or Helical CT
			Multi- slice CT (MSCT)
		New Developments in CT Technology and Applications
			CBCT (Cone-Beam Computed Tomography)
			Selected Examples of Quantitative CT (QCT)
			Dual-Energy CT
			Spectral Photon-Counting CT (SPC-CT)
		Radiation Exposure
			Measurement of Radiation Exposure in CT
			Reduction of Radiation Exposure
		From Clinical CT to Nano-CT
			Micro-CT Using X-Ray Tubes
			Synchrotron Radiation Micro- and Nano-CT
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	41 SPECT Imaging: Basics and New Trends
		Contents
		Introduction
		The Anger Gamma Camera: Design and Performance
			System Components
			Detector Characteristics
			Collimator Design
			Performance Parameters
				Spatial Resolution
				Energy Resolution
				Sensitivity
				Dead Time and Count Rate Capability
				Uniformity
		Conventional SPECT System Design and Performance
			Basic System Design
			SPECT Performance
		Factors Affecting SPECT Quantification
			Instrument Effects: Resolution and Noise
			Physical Effects: Attenuation and Scatter
			Changes of Observed Activity Distribution in Time: Motion and Tracer Kinetics
		New Trends in SPECT
			Novel Collimators
			Organ-Specific Systems
			Dual-Modality SPECT
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	42 PET Imaging: Basic and New Trends
		Contents
		Introduction
		Physics
		Photon Interactions
			Photoelectric Interactions
			Compton Interactions
			Attenuation Coefficients
			Relevance to PET
		Detectors
			The Block Detector
		Coincidence Detection
		Event Types
			Scattered Coincidences
			Accidental Coincidences
			Multiple Coincidences
			Prompt Coincidences
			Noise Equivalent Counts
		Resolution Limitations
		Data Collection, 2-D and 3-D PET
		Data Corrections
			Normalization
			Attenuation Correction
			Scatter Correction
		System Calibration and Quantification
			Partial Volume Effect
		Image Reconstruction
			Filtered Backprojection
			Iterative Reconstruction
		Time-of-Flight PET
		Multi-modality Imaging
			PET-CT
			PET-MRI
		Dedicated Systems
			Animal and Preclinical PET System
				Organ Specific PET Systems
			Brain Imaging
			Breast Imaging
			Prostate Imaging
		Summary
		Cross-References
		References
	43 Image Reconstruction
		Contents
		Introduction
		Analytical Reconstruction Algorithms
			Scanning and Reconstruction Geometry
			Ray and Radon Transforms
		2D Analytical Reconstruction
			The 2D Parallel-Ray Transform and Its Dual
			Parallel-Beam Filtered Backprojection
				Discretization
				Ill-Posedness
			Fan-Beam Filtered Backprojection
				Flat Detector
				Curved Detector
				Short-Scan
				Helical Fan-Beam
		3D Analytical Reconstruction
			Parallel Beam Geometry for 3D PET Systems
				The Reprojection Algorithm
				Rebinning Techniques
			Cone-Beam Reconstruction
				The Feldkamp, Davis and Kreiss Algorithm
				Exact Reconstruction Algorithms
		Iterative Reconstruction Algorithms
			Scanning Model
			Objective Function and Minimization Algorithm
				The EM-ML Algorithm in Emission Tomography
				ML Algorithms in Transmission Tomography
			Regularization
				Early Termination
				Post-reconstruction Smoothing
				Penalized Objective Function or MAP Reconstruction
		Conclusive Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	44 Multi Imaging Devices: PET/MRI
		Contents
		Introduction
		Why PET/MRI?
		Mutual Interferences Between PET and MRI
		Sequential PET/MRI
		Simultaneous PET/MRI: PMT-Based PET/MRI
			Preclinical PET/MRI with Optical Fiber Bundle and PMT
		Simultaneous PET/MRI: APD-Based PET/MRI
			APDs for MR-Compatible PET Detectors
			Preclinical PET/MRI with APDs
			Brain PET/MRI with APDs
			Whole-Body PET/MRI with APDs
		Simultaneous PET/MRI: SiPM-Based PET/MRI
			SiPMs for MR-Compatible PET Detectors
			Preclinical PET/MRI with SiPMs
			Brain PET/MRI with SiPMs
			Whole-Body PET/MRI with SiPMs
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	45 Motion Compensation in Emission Tomography
		Contents
		Introduction
		Different Types of Motion and Their Effects
			Periodic Motion
			Irregular Motion
			Rigid Motion
			Nonrigid Motion
		Motion Detection
			Internal Motion Detection
			External Motion Detection
				Phase-Sensitive Motion Sensors
				Marker-Based Motion Sensors
		Motion Correction
			Image-Based Techniques
				Image Registration
				Optical Flow
				Multiple Acquisition Framing
				Image Deblurring Approaches
				Correction of Breathing-Related Motion
			Projection-Based Techniques
			Event-Based Techniques
				Pre-correction of List Mode Data
				Incorporation of Motion Correction into the Image Reconstruction Process
		Current Trends
			Compensation of Rigid Brain Motion in PET Imaging
			Compensation of Nonrigid Respiration-Induced Motion
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	46 Quantitative Image Analysis in Tomography
		Contents
		Introduction
		Motivation for Quantitative Image Analysis
		Steps Required for Quantitative Image Analysis
		Quantitation from Static Imaging
			Preprocessing
				Preprocessing in the Spatial Domain
				Preprocessing in the Frequency Domain
				Preprocessing Using Multiscale Methods
			Measurements
				Spatial Measurements
				Intensity Measurements
				Texture Measurements
		Quantitation from Dynamic Images
			Kinetic Modeling
			Parametric Imaging
		Conclusion
		References
	47 Compartmental Modeling in Emission Tomography
		Contents
		Introduction
		Compartment Models
			Single Tissue Compartment Model: Blood Flow
			Two Tissue Compartment Model: Receptor Studies
		Reference Tissue Models
		Weighting Factors
		Arterial Input Functions
		Comparison of Fits
		Parametric Methods
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	48 Evaluation and Image Quality in Radiation-Based Medical Imaging
		Contents
		Introduction
			The Imaging Equation
		Tasks
			Classification Tasks
			Estimation Tasks
			Combined Tasks
			Distributions
		Observers
			Figures of Merit
		Ideal Observers
		Ideal Linear Observers
			Linear Estimation Tasks
		Notes on Linear Observers
		Combination Task Observer Models
		Discussion
		Cross-References
		References
	49 Simulation of Medical Imaging Systems: Emission and Transmission Tomography
		Contents
		Introduction
		History of Simulation
		Statistical Methods for Simulations
			Random Number Generators
			Sampling from Probability Density Functions (PDFs)
				Sampling from the Exponential Function Using the Inversion Method
				The Acceptance–Rejection Sampling Method
				Table Lookup
				Library Functions and Sampling from the Normaland Poisson Distributions
		Basic Principles and Physics of Medical Imaging Simulation
			Sources of Photons
				Nuclear Decay: Source of Photons for Emission Tomography
				Electromagnetic Radiation: Source of Photons for X-ray CT
				Secondary Sources of Photons
			Tracking Photons Through Matter
				Description of Attenuation
				Where Will a Photon Interact?
				What Type of Interaction?
				Simulating Photoelectric Absorption
				Simulating Compton Scatter
				Simulating Coherent Scatter
				Simulating Pair Production
			Simulating Detection
				Tracking Photons in the Detector Crystal
					Converting Deposited Energy to a Signal
				Histogramming Simulated Events
			Acceleration of Photon-Tracking Simulations
		Available Simulation Software
		Choosing a Simulation Tool
		Online Resources (Table 44Tab44)
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	50 High-Resolution and Animal Imaging Instrumentation and Techniques
		Contents
		Introduction
		Small Animal Imaging
		Key Technologies
			Present Technology for Small Animal PET Systems
			Spatial Resolution Considerations in PET
		Present Technology for Small Animal SPECT Systems
			Spatial Resolution Considerations in SPECT
			PET and SPECT Comparison
		Improvements in Small Animal Instrumentation
			New Photodetectors
			New Detector Materials
			Recent Developments in PET and SPECT Small Animal Systems
		Small Animal CT Imaging
			Geometry
			X-Ray Tubes
			X-Ray Detectors
			Image Reconstruction and Geometric Calibration
		Multimodality Approach
			PET/CT and SPECT/CT
			PET/SPECT
			PET/MR and SPECT/MR Small Animal Systems
		Other High-Resolution Applications of Radiation Imaging Instrumentation: Breast Cancer Investigation
		Summary
		Cross-References
		References
	51 Imaging Instrumentation and Techniques for Precision Radiotherapy
		Contents
		Introduction
		Imaging for Treatment Planning
			Biological Imaging, Dose Painting
		Imaging for Image-Guided Radiotherapy
			Image Guidance in Photon Therapy
			X-Ray-Based Image Guidance in Ion Therapy
			Ion-Based Image Guidance in Ion Therapy
				Ion Radiography
				Ion Tomography
		Imaging for Dose-Guided Radiotherapy
			Dose Reconstruction in Photon Therapy
			Range Monitoring and Dose Reconstruction in Ion Therapy
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	52 Tumor Therapy with Ion Beams
		Contents
		Introduction
		Physical Basics for Particle Therapy
			Energy Deposition and Depth–Dose Distribution of Particle Beams
			Lateral and Longitudinal Scattering
			Nuclear Fragmentation and PET Verification
		Clinical Beam Application Systems
			Passive Beam Spreading
			Active Beam Delivery
		Detectors and Quality Assurance
			Therapy Online Monitors
			Detectors for Permanent Recording: Films and Nuclear Track Detectors
			Ionization Chamber Dosimetry
		Biological Properties of Heavy Ions Relevant for Therapy
			Definition of RBE and Its Dependence on Dose or Effect Level
			The RBE Dependencies on Physical and Biological Parameters and the Molecular Understanding
		The Planning of the Biological Effective Dose
		Quality Assurance and RBE Detectors
		Conclusions
		References
Index