Handbook of Optofluidics

Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Editors......Page 12
Contributors......Page 13
Part I: Foundations of Optofluids......Page 16
1.1 Introduction......Page 17
1.2 Fundamentals of Microfluidic Transport......Page 18
Equations of Flow......Page 19
Characteristics of Pressure-Driven Flow......Page 20
Electrokinetics......Page 22
1.3 Optofluidic Transport......Page 27
Fundamental Force Equations......Page 28
Particle Manipulation and Transport......Page 29
Direct Manipulation of Fluids Using Optical Methods......Page 32
1.4 Summary and Conclusions......Page 34
References......Page 35
Historical Context......Page 39
Content and Chapter Organization......Page 40
2.2 An Illustrative Example......Page 41
Silicon......Page 43
Compound Semiconductors......Page 44
2.4 Film Formation......Page 45
Chemical Vapor Deposition......Page 46
Sputtering......Page 48
Evaporation......Page 50
Conformality......Page 51
2.5 Micro- and Nanopatterning......Page 52
Photolithography......Page 53
E-Beam Lithography......Page 55
Nanoimprint Lithography......Page 56
Wet Chemical Etching......Page 57
KOH Etching of Silicon......Page 58
Plasma Etching......Page 59
Casting......Page 60
Wafer Bonding......Page 62
Sacrificial Etching......Page 65
PDMS Covers......Page 66
Cleaving......Page 67
Reservoir Attachment......Page 68
Fluorescence Sensor Utilizing Anti-Resonant Reflective Optical Waveguides......Page 69
Fluidically Tuned Photonic Crystal......Page 71
References......Page 73
3.1 Introduction......Page 78
3.2 Background......Page 79
3.3 Integrated Optical Circuit Design Elements......Page 89
Waveguide Bends......Page 90
Optical Splitters and Couplers......Page 91
Input and Output Coupling Structures......Page 96
Mach–Zehnder Interferometers......Page 99
Ring Resonators......Page 102
Waveguide Spectrometers......Page 105
3.5 Waveguides and Optofluidics......Page 108
References......Page 114
4.1 Introduction......Page 122
Hollow Capillaries......Page 123
Bragg Reflection Waveguides......Page 126
4.3 Hollow-Core Photonic Crystal Fiber......Page 130
Photonic Bandgap HC-PCF......Page 131
Photonic Tight-Binding Model Description of HC-PCF Cladding......Page 137
Broadband Hollow-Core Guidance......Page 140
Loss Mechanisms......Page 142
Guidance in HC-PCF with Just the Core Filled with Liquid......Page 144
Designs with Lower Mode Field Overlap with the Liquid......Page 146
Guiding and Scaling Laws in Liquid-Filled HC-PCF......Page 147
Acknowledgments......Page 148
References......Page 149
Matter\'s Aggregation States and Th eir Properties......Page 151
Light–Matter Interaction Processes......Page 153
Laser Principles......Page 155
Gas Lasers......Page 160
Dye Lasers......Page 161
pn Junction—Th e Diode Equation......Page 162
Integrated Light Sources......Page 166
Integrated Light Detectors......Page 176
5.4 Photomultiplier Tubes......Page 182
Reference......Page 183
6. Spectroscopic Methods......Page 184
Instrument: UV–Visible Spectrometer......Page 185
Spectrum and Interpretation......Page 186
Application and Optofluidics......Page 187
Instrumentation: Spectrofluorometer......Page 188
Spectrum and Interpretation......Page 189
6.3 Förster Resonance Energy Transfer......Page 191
6.4 Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy......Page 192
6.5 Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy......Page 195
6.6 Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence......Page 198
6.7 Infrared Vibrational Spectroscopy......Page 199
Normal Raman Scattering......Page 200
Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering......Page 202
6.9 Surface Plasmon Resonance......Page 205
6.10 Refractometry and Polarimetry......Page 206
6.11 Single-Molecule Spectroscopy......Page 207
6.12 Optical Resonators......Page 208
6.13 Dynamic Light Scattering......Page 210
References......Page 212
Concept and Motivation for a Lab-on-a-Chip......Page 220
Sample Preparation......Page 223
Fluid and Particle Handling......Page 224
Analyte Detection......Page 234
7.3 Applications of Optofluidic Lab-on-a-Chip Systems......Page 237
LOC Systems for DNA Sequencing......Page 238
Optofluidic LOC Systems for Particle Synthesis......Page 239
Optofluidic LOC Systems for Encoded-Particle-Based Biochips......Page 240
Optofluidic LOC Systems for Scalable Self-Assembly......Page 244
References......Page 246
PART II: Optical Elements and Devices......Page 253
8.2 Fluid-Controlled Optical Elements......Page 254
Optofluidic Implementations of Fluidically Controlled Photonic Devices......Page 255
Case Studies of Liquid-Controlled Photonic Elements......Page 257
8.3 Conclusions and Prospects......Page 266
References......Page 268
9.1 Introduction......Page 273
9.2 Optofluidic Lenses......Page 274
Out-of-Plane Optofluidic Microlenses......Page 275
In-Plane Optofluidic Microlenses......Page 282
9.3 Optofluidic Mirrors and Prisms......Page 286
9.4 Imaging Sensors......Page 287
9.5 Future Perspective......Page 288
References......Page 289
Beam Manipulation: Switching, Deflection, and Scanning......Page 291
Pneumatically Driven Membrane-Based Devices......Page 297
Tuning of Resonant Structures......Page 302
Summary......Page 305
Surface Plasmons......Page 306
Excitation of Surface Plasmons......Page 308
Sensing through an Array of Subwavelength Holes in Metal......Page 309
Integrated Surface-Plasmon Sensors......Page 312
Summary......Page 314
References......Page 315
Introduction to Ring Resonators......Page 323
Optical Mode in a Ring Resonator......Page 324
Excitation of WGMs......Page 325
Label-Free Sensing......Page 327
Fluorescence Sensing with Ring Resonators......Page 343
Microfluidic Lasers......Page 344
11.3 Conclusion......Page 350
References......Page 351
12.2 Brief Review of the Laser Principle......Page 362
12.3 Wavelength Ranges of Interest for Sensing......Page 364
Classical Dye Lasers......Page 365
On-Chip Dye Lasers......Page 367
12.5 Optofluidic Laser Intra-Cavity Sensors......Page 377
Fluidic Quantum Cascade Lasers......Page 378
Polymer Photonic Crystal Bandedge Laser Sensing......Page 380
Laser Intra-Cavity Absorption Spectroscopy......Page 381
References......Page 382
PART III: Bioanalysis......Page 386
13.1 A Motivation to Study Single Molecules......Page 387
13.2 A Mathematical Foundation for Single-Molecule Detection......Page 388
Fluorescence......Page 390
Optical Cavity Resonance......Page 392
Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy......Page 393
13.4 Fluorescent Dyes and Nanoparticle Labels......Page 394
Laser-Induced Fluorescence Techniques......Page 398
Wide-Field Fluorescence Imaging Techniques......Page 404
Sub-Diffraction-Limit Fluorescence Imaging......Page 408
13.6 Single-Molecule Detection: Applications within Fluidic Environments......Page 412
Zero-Mode Waveguides......Page 413
Rapid Single-Molecule Detection in Nanofluidics......Page 415
Opportunities and Trends for Optofluidic Integration......Page 417
13.7 Summary......Page 418
References......Page 419
Introduction......Page 426
Principles of Optical Manipulation......Page 427
Holographic Optical Tweezers......Page 429
Optical Manipulation Using Evanescent Waves......Page 430
Surface-Plasmon–Enhanced Optical Trap......Page 432
Optical Manipulation and Trapping in a Liquid-Core Waveguide......Page 434
Optical Sorting of Microscale Particles......Page 436
Commercial Optical Tweezers Systems......Page 437
14.2 Optical Manipulation with Indirect Optical Forces......Page 438
Optoelectronic Tweezers......Page 439
Light-Actuated AC Electroosmosis......Page 443
Magnetic Nanowire-Enhanced Optomagnetic Tweezers......Page 446
Anti-Brownian Electrokinetic Trap......Page 448
14.3 Summary......Page 449
References......Page 450
15.1 Introduction......Page 453
Light Guiding in Optical Fibers......Page 454
Design Possibilities for Optical Fibers......Page 456
15.3 Principles of Sensing with Fluid-Filled Optical Fibers......Page 459
Operation Principles of Fiber Sensors......Page 461
Figures of Merit for Fiber Sensors......Page 462
Model of Capillary Filling......Page 464
Methods for Selective Injection......Page 466
Tunable Liquid-Filled Fibers......Page 467
15.5 Sensing with Evanescent Field Fibers......Page 469
15.6 Sensing with Fluid-Core Fibers......Page 473
15.7 Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering in Optical Fibers......Page 477
15.8 Light-Induced Particle Transport in Fluid-Filled Fibers......Page 478
Forces in the Rayleigh Particle Limit......Page 479
Experimental Realization of Fiber-Based Particle Transport......Page 480
15.9 Current Challenges and Prospects......Page 482
References......Page 483
16.1 Introduction......Page 487
The Waveguiding Challenge......Page 489
Solid-Core Waveguides......Page 490
Index-Guided Liquid-Core Waveguides......Page 491
Non-TIR-Based Waveguides......Page 494
Interference-Guided Liquid-Core Waveguides......Page 496
Optical Elements......Page 500
Particle Detection......Page 502
Particle Manipulation......Page 504
16.4 Summary and Outlook......Page 509
References......Page 510
Raman Spectroscopy......Page 515
Optofluidics and Raman Spectroscopy......Page 519
17.3 Experimental Approach......Page 520
Design and Fabrication of Optofluidic Devices......Page 521
Interpreting Raman Spectra......Page 522
Experimental Microscopic Raman System......Page 525
Small Molecule Detection......Page 527
Detection of Protein Denaturation......Page 528
Amyloid β−Detection......Page 531
Cardiovascular Marker Detection......Page 534
References......Page 535
18.1 Introduction......Page 540
Overview of Relevant Plasmonics Theory......Page 543
Propagating (Nonlocalized) Surface Plasmons......Page 553
Localized Surface Plasmons: Metal Nanoparticles......Page 554
Nanohole-Based Surface Plasmons......Page 555
Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering......Page 560
Plasmonic Integrated Circuits......Page 562
Plasmonics for Trapping......Page 565
Optofluidic Integration and Multiplexing with Plasmonics: Plasmofluidics?......Page 567
18.3 Conclusion......Page 569
References......Page 571
19.1 Introduction......Page 577
What Is Flow Cytometry?......Page 578
Flow Cytometry Applications......Page 580
Main Features of a Modern Flow Cytometer: FACS......Page 581
19.2 Moving toward Miniaturization......Page 583
Fluidic System......Page 586
Methods of Optical Detection and Bioanalysis......Page 588
Sorting Methods......Page 600
19.4 Conclusion......Page 609
References......Page 610
Appendix A: Optical Properties of Water......Page 616
Appendix B: Refractive Index of Liquids and Solids......Page 621
Appendix C: Viscosity and Surface Tension of Typical Liquids......Page 625
Appendix D: Common Fluorescent Dyes......Page 627
Appendix E: Common Physical Constants......Page 629
Appendix F: Common Biological Buffers......Page 630