Handbook of Optics, Third Edition Volume II: Design, Fabrication and Testing, Sources and Detectors, Radiometry and Photometry

About the Editors......Page 3
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
Contributors......Page 18
Brief Contents of All Volumes......Page 20
Editors' Preface......Page 26
Preface to Volume II......Page 28
Glossary and Fundamental Constants......Page 30
Part 1. Design......Page 36
1.1 Glossary......Page 38
1.3 Ray-Tracing......Page 39
1.4 Two-Component Systems......Page 40
1.5 Afocal Systems......Page 42
1.8 Field Lenses......Page 43
1.9 Condensers......Page 45
1.10 Zoom or Varifocal Systems......Page 46
1.11 Additional Rays......Page 47
1.13 Is It a Reasonable Layout?......Page 48
1.14 Achromatism......Page 49
1.15 Athermalization......Page 50
2.2 Introduction......Page 52
2.3 Transverse Ray Plots......Page 53
2.4 Field Plots......Page 55
2.5 Additional Considerations......Page 56
2.7 References......Page 57
3.1 Glossary......Page 58
3.3 Lens Entry......Page 59
3.4 Evaluation......Page 65
3.5 Optimization......Page 73
3.6 Other Topics......Page 78
3.7 Buying Optical Design Software......Page 79
3.9 References......Page 81
4.2 Introduction......Page 82
4.3 Preparation of Optical Specifications......Page 86
4.4 Image Specifications......Page 87
4.5 Element Description......Page 89
4.7 Presentation of Specifications......Page 91
4.8 Problems with Specification Writing......Page 92
4.9 References......Page 93
5.2 Introduction......Page 94
5.3 Wavefront Tolerances......Page 96
5.4 Other Tolerances......Page 100
5.5 Starting Points......Page 101
5.7 Tolerancing Procedures......Page 102
5.9 References......Page 104
6.2 Introduction and Summary......Page 106
6.3 Mounting Individual Rotationally Symmetric Optics......Page 107
6.4 Multicomponent Lens Assemblies......Page 110
6.6 Mounting Small Mirrors and Prisms......Page 116
6.7 Mounting Moderate-Sized Mirrors......Page 122
6.9 Temperature Effects on Mounted Optics......Page 126
6.10 References......Page 130
7.2 Introduction......Page 132
7.3 Concepts......Page 133
7.4 Optical Software for Stray Light Analysis......Page 155
7.5 Methods......Page 158
7.6 Conclusion......Page 161
7.7 Sources of Information on Stray Light and Scattered Light......Page 162
7.8 References......Page 163
8.1 Glossary......Page 166
8.3 Homogeneous Thermal Effects......Page 167
8.4 Tolerable Homogeneous Temperature Change (No Compensation)......Page 170
8.5 Effect of Thermal Gradients......Page 171
8.6 Intrinsic Athermalization......Page 172
8.7 Mechanical Athermalization......Page 173
8.8 Optical Athermalization......Page 177
8.9 References......Page 180
Part 2. Fabrication......Page 182
9.2 Material Forms of Supply......Page 184
9.3 Basic Steps in Spherical Optics Fabrication......Page 185
9.5 Asphere Optics Fabrication......Page 188
9.6 Crystalline Optics......Page 189
9.9 References......Page 190
10.2 Introduction......Page 192
10.4 The Advantages of Diamond Turning......Page 193
10.5 Diamond-Turnable Materials......Page 195
10.7 Machine Tools for Diamond Turning......Page 197
10.8 Basic Steps in Diamond Turning......Page 199
10.9 Surface Finish of Diamond-Turned Optics......Page 200
10.10 Metrology of Diamond-Turned Optics......Page 203
10.11 Conclusions......Page 204
10.12 References......Page 205
Part 3. Testing......Page 208
11.1 Glossary......Page 210
11.2 Introduction......Page 211
11.3 Orthonormal Polynomials......Page 212
11.4 Zernike Circle Polynomials......Page 213
11.5 Zernike Annular Polynomials......Page 220
11.7 Elliptical Polynomials......Page 228
11.8 Rectangular Polynomials......Page 234
11.11 Aberration Balancing and Tolerancing, and Diffraction Focus......Page 237
11.12 Isometric, Interferometric, and PSF Plots for Orthonormal Aberrations......Page 243
11.13 Use of Circle Polynomials for Noncircular Pupils......Page 244
11.14 Discussion and Conclusions......Page 246
11.15 References......Page 247
12.1 Glossary......Page 250
12.3 Length and Straightness Measurements......Page 251
12.4 Angle Measurements......Page 259
12.5 Curvature and Focal Length Measurements......Page 266
12.6 References......Page 274
13.3 Classical Noninterferometric Tests......Page 278
13.4 Interferometric Tests......Page 284
13.5 Increasing the Sensitivity of Interferometers......Page 290
13.6 Interferogram Evaluation......Page 291
13.7 Phase-Shifting Interferometry......Page 295
13.8 Measuring Aspherical Wavefronts......Page 300
13.9 References......Page 305
14.2 Introduction......Page 308
14.3 Plotting CGHs......Page 310
14.4 Interferometers Using Computer-Generated Holograms......Page 311
14.5 Accuracy Limitations......Page 313
14.6 Experimental Results......Page 314
14.8 References......Page 316
Part 4. Sources......Page 318
15.2 Introduction......Page 320
15.3 Radiation Law......Page 321
15.4 Laboratory Sources......Page 324
15.5 Commercial Sources......Page 330
15.6 References......Page 370
16.1 Glossary......Page 372
16.2 Introduction......Page 373
16.3 Laser Properties Associated with the Laser Gain Medium......Page 375
16.4 Laser Properties Associated with Optical Cavities or Resonators......Page 390
16.5 Special Laser Cavities......Page 396
16.6 Specific Types of Lasers......Page 400
16.7 References......Page 408
17.1 Glossary......Page 410
17.3 Light-Generation Processes......Page 411
17.4 Light Extraction......Page 415
17.5 Device Structures......Page 417
17.6 Material Systems......Page 424
17.7 Substrate Technology......Page 429
17.8 Epitaxial Technology......Page 430
17.9 Wafer Processing......Page 432
17.10 LED Quality and Reliability......Page 434
17.11 LED-Based Products......Page 438
17.12 References......Page 444
18.1 The Materials Systems......Page 446
18.2 Substrates and Epitaxial Growth......Page 447
18.3 Processing......Page 448
18.4 Solid-State Lighting......Page 449
18.5 Packaging......Page 450
19.1 Glossary......Page 452
19.3 Applications for Semiconductor Lasers......Page 454
19.4 Basic Operation......Page 455
19.5 Fabrication and Configurations......Page 457
19.6 Quantum Well Lasers......Page 460
19.7 High-Power Semiconductor Lasers......Page 469
19.8 High-Speed Modulation......Page 481
19.9 Spectral Properties......Page 487
19.10 Surface-Emitting Lasers......Page 490
19.11 Conclusion......Page 492
19.12 References......Page 494
20.1 Introduction......Page 502
20.2 Description of Optical Pulses and Pulse Trains......Page 503
20.3 Pulse Evolution toward Steady State......Page 510
20.4 Coupling Circulating Pulses Inside a Cavity......Page 513
20.5 Designs of Cavities with Two Circulating Pulses......Page 516
20.6 Analogy of a Two-Level System......Page 523
20.8 References......Page 529
21.1 Glossary......Page 532
21.2 Introduction......Page 533
21.3 The Driving Laser......Page 535
21.4 Attosecond Pulse Generation......Page 537
21.5 Attosecond Pulse Characterization......Page 539
21.7 References......Page 541
22.1 Introduction and Overview......Page 544
22.2 Servo Principles and Issues......Page 548
22.3 Practical Issues......Page 555
22.4 Summary and Outlook......Page 566
22.7 References......Page 567
23.1 Glossary......Page 572
23.2 Introduction......Page 576
23.3 Some History of the Photon Concept......Page 577
23.4 Quantum Theory of the Laser......Page 585
23.5 The Laser Phase-Transition Analogy......Page 606
23.6 Exotic Masers and Lasers......Page 611
23.7 Acknowledgments......Page 616
23.8 References......Page 617
Part 5. Detectors......Page 622
24.1 Scope......Page 624
24.2 Thermal Detectors......Page 625
24.3 Quantum Detectors......Page 627
24.4 Definitions......Page 631
24.5 Detector Performance and Sensitivity......Page 634
24.6 Other Performance Parameters......Page 639
24.7 Detector Performance......Page 642
24.8 References......Page 722
24.9 Suggested Readings......Page 723
25.1 Glossary......Page 724
25.2 Introduction......Page 725
25.3 Principle of Operation......Page 726
25.4 Applications......Page 734
25.5 Reliability......Page 736
25.6 Future Photodetectors......Page 738
25.7 Acknowledgment......Page 740
25.8 References......Page 741
25.9 Additional Reading......Page 742
26.1 Glossary......Page 744
26.3 Photodetector Structures......Page 746
26.4 Speed Limitations......Page 748
26.5 p-i-n Photodetectors......Page 753
26.6 Schottky Photodiode......Page 759
26.7 Avalanche Photodetectors......Page 760
26.8 Photoconductors......Page 763
26.10 References......Page 767
27.2 Introduction......Page 770
27.3 Prototype Experiment......Page 771
27.4 Noise Sources......Page 772
27.5 Applications Using Photomultipliers......Page 775
27.6 Amplifiers......Page 779
27.7 Signal Analysis......Page 781
27.8 References......Page 784
28.2 Thermal Detector Elements......Page 786
28.3 Arrays......Page 792
28.4 References......Page 798
Part 6. Imaging Detectors......Page 800
29.1 Glossary......Page 802
29.2 Structure of Silver Halide Photographic Layers......Page 803
29.5 Exposure......Page 804
29.6 Optical Density......Page 805
29.7 The D-Log H Curve......Page 807
29.9 Reciprocity Failure......Page 810
29.11 Color Photography......Page 811
29.12 Microdensitometers......Page 814
29.13 Performance of Photographic Systems......Page 815
29.15 Acutance......Page 816
29.16 Graininess......Page 818
29.18 Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Detective Quantum Efficiency......Page 821
29.20 Information Capacity......Page 823
29.22 References......Page 824
30.1 Introduction......Page 826
30.2 The Optics of Photographic Films and Papers......Page 827
30.3 The Photophysics of Silver Halide Light Detectors......Page 832
30.4 The Stability of Photographic Image Dyes toward Light Fade......Page 835
30.5 Photographic Spectral Sensitizers......Page 838
30.6 General Characteristics of Photographic Films......Page 843
30.7 References......Page 853
31.1 Glossary......Page 856
31.2 Introduction......Page 857
31.3 The Optical Interface......Page 858
31.4 Image Intensifiers......Page 862
31.5 Image Intensified Self-Scanned Arrays......Page 874
31.6 Applications......Page 882
31.7 References......Page 885
32.1 Glossary......Page 886
32.3 Image Sensing Elements......Page 887
32.4 Readout Elements......Page 897
32.5 Sensor Architectures......Page 906
32.6 References......Page 920
33.1 Glossary......Page 922
33.2 Introduction......Page 924
33.3 Monolithic FPAs......Page 931
33.4 Hybrid FPAs......Page 935
33.5 Performance: Figures of Merit......Page 944
33.6 Current Status and Future Trends......Page 949
33.7 References......Page 952
Part 7. Radiometry and Photometry......Page 956
34.1 Glossary......Page 958
34.2 Introduction......Page 960
34.3 Radiometric Definitions and Basic Concepts......Page 962
34.4 Radiant Transfer Approximations......Page 968
34.5 Absolute Measurements......Page 975
34.6 Photometry......Page 992
34.7 References......Page 999
35.1 Glossary......Page 1004
35.2 Introduction and Terminology......Page 1005
35.3 Transmittance......Page 1006
35.5 Reflectance......Page 1007
35.8 Relationship between Transmittance, Reflectance, and Absorptance......Page 1010
35.9 Measurement of Transmittance......Page 1011
35.11 Measurement of Reflectance......Page 1013
35.12 Measurement of Emittance......Page 1017
35.13 References......Page 1019
35.14 Further Reading......Page 1026
36.1 Glossary......Page 1028
36.2 Introduction and Background......Page 1029
36.3 Symbols, Units, and Nomenclature in Radiometry......Page 1031
36.4 Symbols, Units, and Nomenclature in Photometry......Page 1032
36.5 Conversion of Radiometric Quantities to Photometric Quantities......Page 1038
36.6 Conversion of Photometric Quantities to Radiometric Quantities......Page 1039
36.7 Radiometric/Photometric Normalization......Page 1041
36.9 References......Page 1044
36.10 Further Reading......Page 1045
37.2 Basis of Physical Photometry......Page 1048
37.4 Quantities and Units in Photometry and Radiometry......Page 1050
37.5 Principles in Photometry and Radiometry......Page 1055
37.6 Practice in Photometry and Radiometry......Page 1058
37.7 References......Page 1059
38.2 Definitions, Calculations, and Figures of Merit......Page 1062
38.3 General Features of Spectroradiometry Systems......Page 1068
38.4 Typical Spectroradiometry System Designs......Page 1074
38.5 References......Page 1080
39.1 Introduction......Page 1082
39.2 Basic Calculations......Page 1083
39.3 Software Modeling of Nonimaging Systems......Page 1087
39.4 Basic Building Blocks......Page 1089
39.5 Concentration......Page 1093
39.6 Uniformity and Illumination......Page 1103
39.8 References......Page 1122
40.2 Introduction......Page 1134
40.3 Vision Biology and Perception......Page 1136
40.4 The Science of Lighting Design......Page 1139
40.5 Luminaires......Page 1157
40.6 Lighting Measurements......Page 1184
40.7 Lighting Application Areas......Page 1187
40.8 Acknowledgments......Page 1204
40.9 References......Page 1205
Index......Page 1210
Color Plates......Page 1264