Handbook of Optical Fibers

Preface......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
About the Editor......Page 13
Section Editors......Page 14
Contributors......Page 22
Part I Optical Fiber for Communication......Page 33
 1 Single-Mode Fibers for High Speed and Long-HaulTransmission......Page 34
  Introduction......Page 35
   History of Fiber Evolution (1966–1987)......Page 36
   History of Fiber Evolution (1987–2007)......Page 37
   History of Fiber Evolution (2007 Onwards)......Page 39
  Optical Fiber Designs for Long-Haul Transmission......Page 42
  Quantification of System Level Performance......Page 47
   Long-Haul and Ultra-Long-Haul Transmission Systems......Page 48
   Raman Gain Considerations......Page 51
   Unrepeatered Span Transmission Systems......Page 54
   Transmission System Modeling and Experiments......Page 58
   Splice Loss......Page 61
   Practical Benefits of Ultra-Low Attenuation and Large Effective Area Fibers......Page 62
  Potential Future Directions......Page 66
  Conclusions......Page 67
  References......Page 69
 2 Multimode Fibers for Data Centers......Page 71
  Introduction of Multimode Fibers......Page 72
    Light Propagation, Characterization, and Link Performance......Page 75
    MMF Characterization: Modal Bandwidth and DMD......Page 81
    Source Characterization (Encircled Flux)......Page 84
    System Link Models......Page 88
   Limitation of VCSEL-MMF Transmission and Novel Solutions......Page 91
    Limiting Factors for VCSEL-MMF Transmission......Page 92
    Chromatic Dispersion Compensation......Page 94
    Performance of MMF with Different Peak Wavelength in WDM-Based Transceivers......Page 98
    Modal Dispersion Compensation for SWDM Applications......Page 101
    Motivation for Long Wavelength MMF Systems......Page 104
    Design of MMF for Long Wavelength Transceivers......Page 105
    System Testing of MMF Optimized for 1310 nm......Page 107
    Universal Fiber Concept and Benefits......Page 109
    Fiber Designs......Page 111
    System Level Testing and Verification for Major MM and SM Applications......Page 113
    Optical Trends in the Data Center......Page 117
    Concluding Remarks......Page 124
  References......Page 126
 3 Multi-core Fibers for Space Division Multiplexing......Page 128
  Introduction......Page 129
   Coupled-Mode Theory for Orthogonal Modes......Page 130
   Coupled-Mode Theory for Non-orthogonal Modes......Page 131
  Uncoupled Multi-core Fibers......Page 132
   Mode Coupling in Weakly Coupled MCF......Page 133
   Random Mode Coupling Due to Longitudinal Perturbations......Page 135
   Discrete Coupling Model and Statistical Distribution of the Crosstalk......Page 137
   Coupled Power Theory for Predicting the Statistical Mean of the Crosstalk......Page 141
    Local Power Coupling Coefficient Under High-Spatial-Frequency Perturbations Without Bend Radius Change and Fiber Twisting......Page 143
    Power Coupling Coefficient Averaged Over Fiber Twisting......Page 146
   Crosstalk Suppression Strategy......Page 149
    Suppression of the Mode Coupling Coefficient......Page 150
    Suppression of the Phase Matching......Page 151
   Systematically Coupled Multi-core Fiber......Page 154
    Mechanism of Random Mode Coupling......Page 157
    Group Delay Spread in Randomly Coupled Multi-core Fiber......Page 163
   Cutoff Wavelength Variation Due to Surrounding Cores......Page 168
   Cladding Diameter......Page 169
  References......Page 171
 4 Optical Coherent Detection and Digital Signal Processing of Channel Impairments......Page 175
  Introduction......Page 177
   Mach-Zehnder Modulator......Page 181
   Analytical Baseband Model......Page 183
   Optical-to-Electrical Downconversion......Page 184
   Single-Polarization Optical-to-Electrical Downconverter......Page 185
   Single-Sided Photodetection......Page 187
   Dual-Polarization Optical-to-Electrical Downconversion......Page 188
   I/Q Imbalance......Page 189
   Signal Conditioning Circuit......Page 190
   Analytical Baseband Model......Page 191
   Emulation of Other Detector Types......Page 192
   Nonlinear Schrödinger Equation (NLSE)......Page 193
   Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Model......Page 194
   Introduction......Page 196
   Sampling Rate Requirement......Page 198
   Discrete-Time Fourier Transform......Page 200
   Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) Equalizer......Page 201
   Equalizer Length Requirement......Page 203
   MMSE Performance......Page 205
   Frequency Domain Equalizer (FDE)......Page 207
   Adaptive Time-Domain Equalizer (TDE)......Page 208
    Coefficient Update......Page 209
    Least Mean Square (LMS) Algorithm......Page 210
   Adaptive Frequency-Domain Equalizer (FDE)......Page 211
   Adaptive Multidelay Block Frequency-Domain Equalizer......Page 212
   Hybrid Equalizer Structure......Page 213
   Laser Phase Noise......Page 214
   Phase Estimation in the Absence of Data Modulation......Page 215
   Phase Estimation in the Presence of Data Modulation......Page 217
   Combining Laser Phase Noise Compensation with Linear Equalization......Page 219
   Digital Backpropagation......Page 221
   Split-Step Fourier Method......Page 223
   Reduced Complexity Nonlinear Compensation Algorithms......Page 226
   Interchannel Nonlinear Compensation......Page 227
  Timing Recovery......Page 230
   Digital Timing Recovery......Page 231
   Space-Division Multiplexing......Page 234
   Optical Performance Monitoring......Page 237
  Conclusions......Page 238
  References......Page 240
Part II Solitons and Nonlinear Waves in Optical Fibers......Page 246
 5 A Brief History of Fiber-Optic Soliton Transmission......Page 247
   Nonlinear Waves......Page 248
   Optical Fiber Technology......Page 250
   Toward Experimental Proof of Principle......Page 251
  Some Facts About Fibers......Page 253
  Some Facts About the NLSE and Its Soliton Solution......Page 254
   The Soliton Solution......Page 256
   Deviations from the Exact Solution......Page 257
   The Soliton Laser......Page 258
   The Raman Shift......Page 259
   Soliton Interaction......Page 260
   Coding Formats for Optical Telecommunications......Page 261
   Generalized NLSE......Page 262
   Optical Amplifiers......Page 264
   Gordon-Haus Jitter......Page 265
   Four-Wave Mixing......Page 268
   Dispersion Managed Solitons......Page 269
   Commercial Soliton Systems......Page 271
   Telecommunications and Limits to Growth......Page 272
   Soliton Molecules......Page 274
   Soliton Structures on a Background......Page 276
   Supercontinuum Generation......Page 277
   Fiber Lasers......Page 280
   Beyond the Nonlinear Schrödinger Ansatz......Page 282
  Conclusion......Page 283
  References......Page 284
 6 Perturbations of Solitons in Optical Fibers......Page 294
  Introduction......Page 295
  Physical Model and Nonlinear Schrödinger (NLS) Equation......Page 296
   Bright Solitons......Page 299
   Dark Solitons......Page 300
   Solitons Under Perturbations......Page 302
  Bright Solitons Under Perturbations......Page 303
   The Background......Page 305
   The Soliton and the Shelf......Page 307
   Adiabatic Dynamics......Page 309
  Dark Solitons Under Perturbations......Page 313
  Beyond the Adiabatic Theory: Soliton Radiation......Page 317
  Summary and Conclusions......Page 321
  References......Page 322
 7 Emission of Dispersive Waves from Solitons in Axially Varying Optical Fibers......Page 325
  Introduction......Page 326
   Fundamental Soliton......Page 327
   Dispersive Wave......Page 328
   Axially Varying Optical Fibers......Page 330
   Emission of Multiple Dispersive Waves Along the Fiber......Page 331
   Cascading of Dispersive Waves......Page 333
   Transformation of a Dispersive Wave into a Fundamental Soliton......Page 334
   Emission of Polychromatic Dispersive Waves......Page 335
   Generation of a Dispersive Wave Continuum......Page 337
  Conclusion and Perspectives......Page 338
  References......Page 339
 8 Nonlinear Waves in Multimode Fibers......Page 341
  Introduction......Page 343
  Spatiotemporal Pulse Shaping in Multicore Fibers......Page 345
   Pulse Propagation in Multicore Fibers......Page 346
   Pulse Compression and Combining......Page 348
   Spatial-Division Multiplexing......Page 352
   Nonlinear Propagation in Multimode Fibers......Page 353
   The Influence of Nonlinear Effects on the Propagation of Optical Signals......Page 355
  Raman Cleanup Effect and Raman Lasing in Multimode Graded-Index Fibers......Page 358
   Experimental Observations and Theoretical Models of Raman Cleanup Effect......Page 360
   Raman Cleanup Effect in Raman Fiber Amplifiers and Lasers......Page 364
   GRIN Fiber Raman Lasers Directly Pumped by Multimode Laser Diodes......Page 366
   Combined Action of Raman Beam Cleanup and Mode-Selecting FBGs in GRIN Fiber Raman Lasers......Page 370
  Kerr Beam Self-Cleaning......Page 377
   Theoretical Models of Spatiotemporal Dynamics......Page 379
   Kerr Beam Cleanup in GRIN MMF......Page 382
   Kerr Beam Cleanup in Step-Index Active MMF with Loss or Gain......Page 387
   Self-Cleaning in a MMF Laser Cavity......Page 390
  References......Page 392
 9 Shock Waves......Page 396
  Introduction......Page 397
  Gradient Catastrophe and Classical Shock Waves......Page 400
   Regularization Mechanisms......Page 402
  Shock Formation in Optical Fibers......Page 404
   Mechanisms of Wave-Breaking in the Normal GVD Regime......Page 409
   Shock in Multiple Four-Wave Mixing......Page 413
   The Focusing Singularity......Page 415
   Control of DSW and Hopf Dynamics......Page 418
  Riemann Problem and Dam Breaking......Page 421
  Competing Wave-Breaking Mechanisms......Page 424
  Resonant Radiation Emitted by Dispersive Shocks......Page 426
   Phase-Matching Condition......Page 427
   Bright Pulses......Page 429
   Periodic Input......Page 431
  Shock Waves in Passive Cavities......Page 432
  Appendix A......Page 434
  References......Page 439
 10 A Variety of Dynamical Settings in Dual-CoreNonlinear Fibers......Page 443
  Introduction......Page 444
    The Formulation of the Model......Page 448
    Continuous-Wave (CW) States and Their Modulational Instability (MI)......Page 451
    The Variational Approximation (VA) for Solitons......Page 452
   Gap Solitons in Asymmetric Dual-Core Fibers......Page 455
   The Coupler with Separated Nonlinearity and Dispersion......Page 458
   Two Polarizations of Light in the Dual-Core Fiber......Page 460
   Solitons in Linearly Coupled Fiber Bragg Gratings (BGs)......Page 462
   Bifurcation Loops for Solitons in Couplers with the Cubic-Quintic (CQ) Nonlinearity......Page 467
   Introduction......Page 472
   The Exact SP (Solitary-Pulse) Solution......Page 474
   Special Cases of Stable SPs (Solitary Pulses)......Page 477
   Stability of the Solitary Pulses and Dynamical Effects......Page 478
   Interactions Between Solitary Pulses......Page 481
   CW (Continuous-Wave) States and Dark Solitons (``Holes\'\')......Page 482
   Evolution of Solitary Pulses Beyond the Onset of Instability......Page 483
  Soliton Stability in PT (Parity-Time)-Symmetric Nonlinear Dual-Core Fibers......Page 485
  Conclusion......Page 488
  References......Page 490
Part III Optical Fiber Fabrication......Page 497
 11 Advanced Nano-engineered Glass-Based Optical Fibers for Photonics Applications......Page 498
  Introduction......Page 500
  Importance of the Nano-engineered Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 504
   The Basic Material of Nano-engineered Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 505
  Mechanism to Develop Nano-engineered Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 506
  Fabrication of Erbium-Doped Nano-engineered Zirconia-Yttria-Alumina-Phospho-Silica (ZYAPS) Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 507
   Material Characterization of Erbium-Doped Nano-engineered ZYAPS Glass-Based Optical Preform and Fiber......Page 509
   The Optical Performance of Erbium-Doped Nano-engineered ZYAPS Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 512
  Fabrication of Erbium-Doped Nano-engineered Scandium-Phospho-Yttria-Alumina-Silica (SPYAS) Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 515
   Material Characterization of Erbium-Doped Nano-engineered SPYAS Glass-Based Optical Preform and Fiber......Page 516
   The Optical Performance of Erbium-Doped Nano-engineered SPYAS Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 519
  Fabrication of Multielement (P-Yb-Zr-Ce-Al-Ca) Fiber for Moderate-Power Laser Application......Page 524
   Material Characterization of Multielement (P-Yb-Zr-Ce-Al-Ca) Optical Preform and Fiber......Page 528
   The Optical Performance of Multielement (P-Yb-Zr-Ce-Al-Ca) Optical Fiber......Page 530
  Fabrication of Chromium-Doped Nano-phase Separated Yttria-Alumina-Silica (YAS) Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 534
   Material Characterization of Chromium-Doped Nano-phase Separated YAS Glass-Based Optical Preform and Fiber......Page 535
   The Optical Performance of Chromium-Doped Nano-phase Separated YAS Glass-Based Optical Fiber......Page 539
  Conclusions......Page 544
  References......Page 546
 12 Fabrication of Negative Curvature Hollow Core Fiber......Page 550
  Photonic Crystal Fiber......Page 551
   Development of Hollow Core Fiber......Page 552
  Development of Negative Curvature Hollow Core Fibers......Page 554
   The Importance Negative Curvature......Page 555
   Antiresonant Reflecting Optical Waveguide (ARROW)......Page 556
   Marcatili and Schmeltzer\'s Model......Page 558
  Fabrication of Fiber......Page 559
    Stack......Page 560
    Drawing of Cane......Page 561
    Fiber Design......Page 563
    Attenuation Measurement: Cutback Method......Page 564
  References......Page 566
 13 Optimized Fabrication of Thulium Doped Silica Optical Fiber Using MCVD......Page 571
  Introduction......Page 572
  Thulium Doped Fibers......Page 573
  Fabrication Methods of Silica Fibers......Page 575
  MCVD-Solution Doping Technique......Page 576
  Fabrication and Characterization of Optical Fiber Preforms......Page 579
   Soot Deposition Temperature......Page 581
   Mechanism of Soot Deposition......Page 582
   Soot Characteristics: Physisorption and Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Measurements......Page 584
   Effect of Soot Condition on the Final Preform Characteristics......Page 589
   Alumina, Gallia, and Baria Solution Doped Silica Preforms......Page 592
    Aluminum Doped Preforms......Page 593
    Gallium Doped Preforms......Page 594
    Barium Doped Preforms......Page 595
  Spectroscopic Characteristics of Thulium Doped Fibers (TDF)......Page 598
   Absorption......Page 599
   Lifetime......Page 600
  Conclusions......Page 602
  References......Page 603
 14 Microfiber: Physics and Fabrication......Page 606
   Wave Equation for Microfiber......Page 607
   Adiabaticity Criterion......Page 613
   Fabrications of Meso Taper......Page 616
    The MT Shape and the Design of Fabrication System......Page 618
   Fabrications of Short Taper......Page 623
    Modified Flame-Brushing Technique......Page 624
    Direct Drawing from Bulk Technique......Page 625
   Fabrications of Long Taper......Page 626
  Application in Structural Health Monitoring......Page 627
   Microfiber-Based IMZI Sensor Packaging......Page 628
   Microfiber-Based IMZI Sensor Deployment......Page 632
  References......Page 637
 15 Flat Fibers: Fabrication and Modal Characterization......Page 641
  Introduction......Page 642
  Flat Fiber Fabrication......Page 644
   Flat Fiber Drawing Repeatability......Page 646
   Multimode Propagation in Flat Fibers......Page 647
   Single-Mode Propagation in Flat Fibers......Page 650
  Conclusion......Page 653
  References......Page 654
 16 3D Silica Lithography for Future Optical Fiber Fabrication......Page 655
  Introduction......Page 656
  Conventional Silica fiber Fabrication......Page 658
   3D Fabrication (3D Printing)......Page 659
   3D silica lithography......Page 660
   3D Silica fiber Fabrication......Page 661
   Challenges for 3D Silica fibers......Page 662
   Pathways for 3D Silica fibers......Page 663
  Initial Results......Page 667
  References......Page 668
Part IV Active Optical Fibers......Page 672
 17 Rare-Earth-Doped Laser Fiber Fabrication Using Vapor Deposition Technique......Page 673
  Preform Technologies......Page 674
   MCVD Process Combined with Solution Doping for Rare-Earth and Aluminum Incorporation......Page 675
    Refractive Index and Diffusion Properties of RE-Doped Fibers......Page 677
    Background Losses in RE-Doped Fibers......Page 678
    Absorption and Emission Properties of RE-Doped Fibers......Page 681
    Photodarkening......Page 683
   MCVD Process Combined with Gas Phase Doping for Rare-Earth and Aluminum Incorporation......Page 685
    Refractive Index Behavior and Concentration Distribution......Page 688
    Absorption and Emission Properties of the Preforms and Fibers......Page 689
    Laser Behavior of the Fibers......Page 690
  References......Page 691
 18 Powder Process for Fabrication of Rare Earth-Doped Fibers for Lasers and Amplifiers......Page 694
  Introduction......Page 695
   Optical Glass and Fibers......Page 697
   Modern Optical Fibers......Page 698
    Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)......Page 699
    Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)......Page 700
   Production of Active Fibers by Rare Earth Activation......Page 701
  Rediscovering Powder Techniques for Fiber Production......Page 702
   Powder Technologies for Fiber Production......Page 703
   Powder-in-Tube (PIT)......Page 704
   Refractive Index Control by Simultaneous Addition of Al2O3 and P2O5......Page 706
   Producing the Core Material Outside of the Preform......Page 707
    Core Material Production by Suspension Doping of Fine Silica Powder: REPUSIL......Page 708
   Powder-in-Tube (PIT) Technique......Page 709
   Doping Concentration......Page 712
   Powder Synthesis by Mixing Oxides......Page 715
    Iterative Vitrification and Fine Milling......Page 716
    Coarse Crushing and Sieving......Page 717
   Powder Synthesis Using the Sol-Gel Process......Page 718
    Fine Milling and Sintering......Page 722
    Coarse Crushing and Sieving......Page 723
  Solubility and Homogeneity of Rare Earth Elements......Page 725
  Thermodynamic Properties of Rare Earth Ion-Doped Silica Powder  (Tg, Tx, Tc)......Page 731
  References......Page 735
 19 Progress in Mid-infrared Fiber Source Development......Page 737
  Introduction......Page 738
   Carbon Dioxide and Monoxide Lasers......Page 739
   Optical Parametric Amplifiers and Oscillators......Page 740
  Mid-IR Fiber Lasers: Overviews and Challenges......Page 741
  Fibers and Glasses for the Mid-IR......Page 746
   Fluorides......Page 747
   Chalcogenides......Page 749
  Spectroscopy of the Significant Rare-Earth Transitions Used for Mid-IR Fiber Lasers......Page 750
   Spectroscopy and Lasing of Er3+ Ion......Page 751
   Spectroscopy and Lasing of Ho3+ Ion......Page 754
   Single-Longitudinal-Mode Systems......Page 755
   High-Power cw Systems......Page 757
   Tunable cw Systems......Page 758
   Ultrafast Systems......Page 759
  Supercontinuum Generated in Mid-IR Transparent Fibers......Page 760
   Supercontinuum Generated via Optical Parametric Amplification Systems......Page 761
   Supercontinuum Generation via Near-IR Fiber Laser Pumping......Page 762
   Supercontinuum Generation via Mid-IR Fiber Laser Pumping......Page 764
  References......Page 766
 20 Crystalline Fibers for Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers......Page 771
  Introduction......Page 772
  Crystalline Fiber Core......Page 774
   The LHPG Method......Page 775
   The Growth Mechanism......Page 776
   Crystal Fiber Host and Dopant Characterization......Page 780
  Glass Cladding......Page 782
   The Co-drawing LHPG Method......Page 783
   The Residual Strain in Glass-Clad Crystalline Fiber......Page 786
   Crystalline Core and Glass Clad Interface......Page 788
   Light Transmission Characteristics......Page 793
  Crystalline Fiber-Based Broadband Spontaneous Emission......Page 795
   Ce:YAG as Crystalline Core......Page 796
   Ti:sapphire as Crystalline Core......Page 805
   Cr:YAG as Crystalline Core......Page 809
  Crystalline Fiber Laser and Amplifier......Page 816
    Wavelength Tuning by Pellicle Etalon......Page 817
    Wavelength Tuning by Diffraction Grating......Page 818
    Wavelength Tuning by Birefringent Filter......Page 819
   Crystalline Fiber Amplifier......Page 822
  Conclusion......Page 829
  References......Page 830
 21 Cladding-Pumped Multicore Fiber Amplifier for Space Division Multiplexing......Page 834
  Introduction......Page 835
  Multicore Fiber Amplifier......Page 836
   Multicore Erbium-Doped Fiber......Page 837
   Signal/Pump Coupler for MCFA......Page 839
   Cross Talk Among the Spatial Channels......Page 842
  Numerical Simulation......Page 843
   Gain and NF of Cladding-Pumped MC-EDFA......Page 846
   Effect of Enlarging the Core Size......Page 847
   Cross-Gain Modulation Due to Gain Depletion......Page 848
   Power Conversion Efficiency......Page 850
  Experimental Demonstration of Cladding-Pumped Multicore Fiber Amplifiers......Page 851
   Cladding-Pumped MC-EDFA Employing Side-Coupled Pumping......Page 852
   Side-Coupled Pumping......Page 853
   Comparison Between Core- and Cladding-Pumped Amplifiers......Page 855
  Electrical Power Consumption......Page 856
  Recent Advancements......Page 857
  References......Page 859
 22 Optical Amplifiers for Mode Division Multiplexing......Page 862
  Introduction......Page 863
  Current State of the Art in SDM Amplifiers......Page 864
   Fiber-Optic Collimator Assembly......Page 866
   Pump Coupler......Page 868
   Mode-Field Diameter Adaptor......Page 869
   Mode-Dependent Loss Equalizer......Page 871
   The Importance of Differential Modal Gain (DMG) Control......Page 872
    Controlling the Transverse Pump Field Distribution......Page 873
    Tailoring the Radial Dopant Distribution of the Active Fiber......Page 876
    Engineering the Signal Mode Profiles......Page 879
    Other Approaches......Page 880
  Core-Pumped 6-Mode EDFA......Page 881
  Cladding-Pumped 6-Mode EDFA......Page 883
  Conclusion......Page 884
  References......Page 885
Part V Special Optical Fibers......Page 887
 23 Optical Fibers for High-Power Lasers......Page 888
   Active Fibers for High-Power Laser Beam Generation......Page 889
   Double-Cladding Fibers......Page 891
   Large Mode Area Photonic Crystal Fibers......Page 893
   Large Pitch Fibers......Page 895
   Leakage Channel Fibers......Page 896
   Chirally Coupled Core Fibers......Page 898
   Pixelated Bragg Fibers......Page 899
   Hollow-Core Fibers......Page 900
  Conclusion......Page 903
  References......Page 904
 24 Multicore Fibers......Page 906
   Classification of SDM......Page 907
   Research Progress of SDM Based on MCF......Page 909
  MCF Design and Fabrication......Page 912
   Uncoupled-Core MCF......Page 913
   Coupled-Core MCF......Page 914
   FM-MCF......Page 918
   Fan-In and Fan-Out......Page 919
   Splicing Technology for MCF......Page 923
   Core Pumped MC-EDFA......Page 928
   Cladding-Pumped MC-EDFA......Page 929
   MCF-Based Optical Access Network......Page 936
   MCF-Based Front-Haul......Page 940
   MCF-Based Short-Reach Interconnect......Page 944
   MCF-Based Long-Haul Transmission......Page 947
   Discrete MCF Sensing Technology......Page 961
   Distributed MCF Sensing Technology......Page 963
  References......Page 970
 25 Polymer Optical Fibers......Page 978
  Introduction......Page 979
  Development of POF......Page 980
  Materials for POF......Page 981
  Types of POF......Page 985
   SI-MM POF......Page 986
   GI-MM POF......Page 987
   EO POF......Page 988
   Segmented Cladding POF......Page 989
   Scintillating POF......Page 990
   Dye-Doped POF......Page 991
   Photorefractive POF......Page 993
   Microstructured POF......Page 994
    Extrusion of SI-POF......Page 996
    Extrusion of SI-MPOF......Page 997
    Extrusion of GI-POF......Page 998
   Preform Method......Page 1000
    GI-POF Preform Fabrication......Page 1001
   3D Printing Method......Page 1003
  POF for Data Transmission......Page 1005
  POF for Sensing......Page 1006
   Biomedical and Chemical Sensor......Page 1008
    Cracking Detection......Page 1010
    Dew-Point Sensor......Page 1013
    Oxygen Sensor......Page 1014
   Single-Mode POF Sensors and Applications......Page 1015
  POF for Illumination......Page 1016
  References......Page 1018
 26 Optical Fibers in Terahertz Domain......Page 1029
  Introduction......Page 1030
  Constraints and Challenges for Developing THz Fibers......Page 1031
  Solid-Core THz Fibers......Page 1033
   Sub-wavelength Diameter Fibers......Page 1034
   Porous Fibers......Page 1039
   Solid-Core Photonic Crystal Fibers......Page 1046
  Hollow-Core THz Fibers......Page 1049
   Dielectric-/Metal-Coated Hollow-Core Fibers......Page 1050
   Hollow-Core Bragg Fibers......Page 1056
   Hollow-Core Pipe Fibers......Page 1061
   Kagome Hollow-Core Photonic Crystal Fibers......Page 1067
   Tube Lattice Hollow-Core Fibers......Page 1069
  Conclusion......Page 1073
  References......Page 1074
 27 Optical Fibers for Biomedical Applications......Page 1078
  Introduction......Page 1079
   Light-Guiding Principles in Conventional Fibers......Page 1081
   Ray Optics Concepts......Page 1084
   Modal Concepts......Page 1086
    Graded-Index Numerical Aperture......Page 1088
   Performance Characteristics of Generic Optical Fibers......Page 1089
    Mechanical Properties......Page 1090
   Conventional Solid-Core Fibers......Page 1091
   Specialty Solid-Core Fibers......Page 1092
    Photosensitive Optical Fiber......Page 1093
    Bend-Insensitive Fiber......Page 1094
    Polarization-Maintaining Fibers......Page 1095
   Double-Clad Fibers......Page 1096
   Hard-Clad Silica Fibers......Page 1097
   Coated Hollow-Core Fibers......Page 1098
   Plastic Fibers......Page 1099
   Side-Emitting or Glowing Fibers......Page 1100
   Middle-Infrared Fibers......Page 1101
   Optical Fiber Bundles......Page 1102
  References......Page 1103
Part VI Optical Fiber Measurement......Page 1105
 28 Basics of Optical Fiber Measurements......Page 1106
   Basics of Optical Fiber......Page 1107
    Acceptance Angle and Numerical Aperture......Page 1109
    Attenuation Coefficient......Page 1110
    Cut-Off Wavelength......Page 1112
   Components and Handling Techniques......Page 1113
    Light Source......Page 1114
    Photodetector......Page 1115
    Cables and Connectors......Page 1118
    Splicer and Cleaver......Page 1120
    Optical Power Meter......Page 1121
    Optical Spectrum Analyzer......Page 1122
   Spectral Attenuation Measurement......Page 1123
   Optical Time Domain Reflectometer Loss Measurement......Page 1125
    Cut-Off Wavelength Measurement......Page 1127
    Spot Size Measurement......Page 1131
    Geometry......Page 1132
    Interference Microscopy Method......Page 1138
    Digital Holographic Microscopy Method......Page 1139
  References......Page 1143
 29 Measurement of Active Optical Fibers......Page 1145
  Introduction......Page 1146
    Einstein Relation......Page 1147
    Light Absorption and Gain......Page 1150
    The Absorption and the Emission Cross Sections......Page 1151
    Lifetime......Page 1153
   Typical Active Ions and Properties......Page 1155
    Energy Level System of Er3+......Page 1157
    Ion-Ion Interactions......Page 1158
    Up-conversion Emission......Page 1159
  Measurement of Absorption......Page 1160
   Ground State Absorption......Page 1163
    Measurement......Page 1164
    Definitions......Page 1165
    Measurement......Page 1166
   Measurement of Spectral Emission......Page 1167
    Forward Emission......Page 1168
    Axial Emission by Side Pumping......Page 1170
    Combined Excitation-Emission Spectroscopy......Page 1171
    Time Domain......Page 1172
    Frequency Domain......Page 1175
   Principle of Gain Measurement......Page 1177
   Gain Measurement......Page 1178
  References......Page 1181
 30 Characterization of Specialty Fibers......Page 1183
  Introduction......Page 1184
   Dispersion Characteristics......Page 1188
    Material Dispersion......Page 1190
    Waveguide Dispersion......Page 1191
    Intermodal Dispersion......Page 1192
    Phase Shift Method......Page 1194
    AM Response Method......Page 1195
    Time Domain Measurement......Page 1197
    Frequency Domain Measurement......Page 1198
   State of Polarization (SOP)......Page 1199
   Birefringence and Beat Length......Page 1200
   Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)......Page 1201
    Pulse Delay Method......Page 1203
    Interferometric Method......Page 1204
    Poincare Arc Method......Page 1205
    Jones Matrix Method......Page 1209
    Mueller Matrix Method......Page 1210
   Polarization-Dependent Loss (PDL)......Page 1212
    Physical Analysis of Active Fiber......Page 1214
    Chemical Analysis of Active Fiber......Page 1216
    Absorption Spectrum Measurement Based......Page 1223
    Absorption and Emission Spectra Measurement Based on Side Pumping Method......Page 1225
  References......Page 1230
 31 Characterization of Distributed Birefringencein Optical Fibers......Page 1233
  Introduction......Page 1234
    Principle of Generation and Detection of BDG......Page 1238
    Phase Matching Condition......Page 1240
    Coupled Wave Equations of the Brillouin-Enhanced FWM Process......Page 1241
   Characteristics of the BDG Reflection Spectrum......Page 1243
   Numerical Calculations of the Birefringence......Page 1245
    Experimental Measurement for Different PMFs......Page 1247
    Extension of the Measurement Range......Page 1249
   Sensing Applications......Page 1253
    Distributed Temperature and Strain Measurement......Page 1254
    Distributed Transverse Pressure Measurement......Page 1256
    Distributed Hydrostatic Pressure Measurement......Page 1259
  References......Page 1262
 32 Characterization of Distributed Polarization-Mode Coupling for Fiber Coils......Page 1264
  Introduction......Page 1265
   Optical Coherence Domain Polarimetry System......Page 1267
   Jones Matrix Method......Page 1268
   Optical Path Tracking Method......Page 1269
    Stable Unit and Recursion Formula......Page 1270
    Classifications and General Formulas......Page 1271
   Principle of Operation......Page 1273
   Device, Implementation, and Performance......Page 1277
    Temperature Instability σB......Page 1281
    The Measurement Accuracy σC of the Scanning Stage......Page 1282
   Distributed Polarization Crosstalk Measurement with Loss Coefficient......Page 1283
   Differential Delay Line Structure......Page 1287
   Measurement with Differential Structure Delay Line......Page 1291
   Iterative Dispersion Compensation Method......Page 1295
   High-Resolution Measurement Cancelling Dispersion......Page 1298
   Analysis Method of PMF Coil Data......Page 1299
    Periodicity of PMF Coil......Page 1300
    Diagnosis Results at Different Temperatures......Page 1301
  Con