Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education

Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
About the Editors
Section Editors
Contributors
Part I: Introduction
	1 Shaping the Field of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		ODDE Terminology
		The Structure and Content of the Handbook
		Macrolevel: Theories and Systems
			Section 1: History, Theory, and Research in ODDE (Section Editor: Junhong Xiao)
			Section 2: Global Perspectives and Internationalization (Section Editor: Svenja Bedenlier)
		Meso-level: Institutional Perspectives, Management, and Organization
			Section 3: Organization, Leadership, and Change (Section Editor: Ross Paul)
			Section 4: Infrastructure, Quality Assurance, and Support Systems (Section Editor: Tian Belawati)
		Microlevel: Learning and Teaching
			Section 5: Learners, Teachers, Media, and Technology (Section Editor: Vanessa Dennen)
			Section 6: Design, Delivery, and Assessment (Section Editor: Richard West)
		An Invitation to Knowledge Sharing and Future Research
		References
Part II: History, Theory, and Research
	2 Introduction to History, Theory, and Research in ODDE
		Introduction
		Relevance of ODDE History
		Importance of ODDE Theories
		Necessity of Rigorous Research
		Structure of the Section
		Conclusions and Implications for Theory, Practice, and Research
		References
	3 From Correspondence Education to Online Distance Education
		Introduction
		The Correspondence Tradition
		Radio and Television: A Bridge Between Correspondence Study and the Open Universities
		The ``Industrialized´´ Tradition and Open Universities
		Digital Technology: From the Virtual Classroom Back to Independent Study
		A Note on History of Theory and Scholarship
		Conclusion: The New Must Be Informed by the Old - Lessons from History
		References
	4 Open Education as Social Movement? Between Evidence-Based Research and Activism
		Introduction
		Social Movement Theory
		Open Education from the Perspective of SMT
			Conflict and Protest in Open Education
			Cultural Representation
			Values and Collective Action
			Influence of Social, Political, and Cultural Context
		Discussion
		Conclusions
		References
	5 History and Development of Instructional Design and Technology
		Introduction
		The Origins and Evolution of Instructional Technology
			Hard and Soft Technologies
			Visualizing the Curriculum: The Paradigm of a Concreteness Continuum
			From Visual to Audiovisual Instruction: The Paradigm of Communication Improvement
				Educational Radio
				Instructional Film
			The Audiovisual Instruction Era
				Television: Educational and Instructional
			Behaviorism and Programmed Instruction: The Paradigm of a Technology of Teaching
		The Origins and Evolution of Instructional Design
			Tributaries to Instructional Design
				Industrial Training During Wartime, 1918-1945
				Military Research and Development, 1941 Through the Early 1950s
				Programmed Instruction and the Development Process, the Late 1950s
				From Military Research to Pedagogical Principles, the 1960s
			Societal Pressures Forge a Synthesis
			Critiques and the ISD Concept Today
		Conclusion
		References
	6 The Rise and Development of Digital Education
		Introduction
		Digital Developments
			The Web
			LMS
			Blogs
			Social Media
			MOOCs
		Conclusions
		References
	7 Artificial Intelligence in Education and Ethics
		Introduction
			The Early Days of AI in Education
		Contemporary AI in Education
			AI and Learner-Facing Tools
			Are Learner-Facing Tools Effective and Being Used?
			AI and Teacher-Facing Tools
			AI and Administrator-Facing Tools
		Ethical Issues
			Ethical Issues Around Education in General
			Ethical Issues of AI in Education
				Learner-Facing Tools
				Teacher-Facing Tools
				Administrator-Facing Tools
			Dealing with Ethical Issues in the Design, Implementation, and Deployment of AIEd Systems
		Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
		Implications for Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE)
		Conclusion
		References
	8 Classic Theories of Distance Education
		Introduction
		Classic Theorists of Distance Education
		Epistemological Constructs of Classical Distance Education Theories
			Otto Peters´ Distance Education as an Industrialized Form of Education Theory
			Börje Holmberg´s Guided Didactic Conversation Theory
			Michael Moore´s Transactional Distance Theory
		Operationalization of the Classical Distance Education Theories
		A Background to the Emergence of Open and Distance Education Theorizing
		Interpretations of Classical Distance Education Theories
			Keegan´s Integration Theory of Teaching-Learning
			Garrison´s Communication and Learner Control Theory
			Verduin and Clark´s Theory of Dialogue: A Three-Dimensional Theory of Distance Education
		Concluding Reflections
		References
	9 Newer Theories for Digital Learning Spaces
		Introduction
		What Is a Theory?
		Traditional Learning Theories
		Toward Newer Theories
		Newer Theories for Digital Learning Spaces
		What Is a Theory: Revised
		References
	10 Pedagogical Paradigms in Open and Distance Education
		Introduction
		Why Do Physical Technologies Not Seem to Matter for In-Person Learning?
		Generation 0
			The Problems that In-Person Learning Has to Solve
			The Problems that Distance Learning Has to Solve
		The Three Generations of Distance Learning Pedagogical Paradigms: Objectivist, Subjectivist, and Complexivist
			Objectivism: A Paradigm of Teaching
			Subjectivism: A Paradigm of Learning
			Complexivism: A Paradigm of Knowledge
			Blurred Lines and Overlaps
		Emerging Paradigms
			Data-Driven Pedagogy: A Theory-Free Paradigm
			Hologogy: A Cultural Paradigm
			Bricolagogy: A Theory-Agnostic Paradigm
		Conclusions
		References
	11 Theories of Motivation and Empowerment in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		Motivated Learners: Empowering Attributes
			Self-Efficacy
			Achievement Goals
			Intrinsic Motivation
			Self-Regulation
		Motivating Communities: Empowering Contexts
		Experiencing Motivation-as-Lived: Empowering Experiences
		Conclusion
		References
	12 Technology Acceptance and Adoption in Education
		Introduction
		Technology Acceptance Theories and Models in Educational Contexts
			Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
				Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
				Emergence of TAM
				Modifications and Extensions of TAM
				Prevalence of TAM in Educational Technology Adoption
			Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
				Emergence of UTAUT
				UTAUT2 as an Extension of UTAUT
		Major Findings in Educational Technology Acceptance Research
			Major Research Themes and Findings
				Educational Technologies Validated and Users Involved
				Most Researched Predictors of Technology Acceptance
			New Developments in Educational Technology Adoption
				Integration of TAM
				Integration of UTAUT
		Conclusion and Further Research Directions
		References
	13 Research Trends in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		The 3 M-Framework of Research Areas in ODDE
		Thematic Scope of Academic Journals in ODDE
			Journal Cluster 1: Educational Technology, Learning, and Computer Science
			Journal Cluster 2: Educational Technology from K-12 to Higher Education
			Journal Cluster 3: Distance Education in the Context of Higher Education
			Journal Cluster 4: Technology-Enhanced Learning in School Settings
		Research Trends Emerging in Content Analysis and Systematic Reviews
			Quantitative Content Analysis and Text-Mining
			Citation and Journal Network Analysis
			Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis Studies
		Alternating Research Waves
			The First Wave: Institutional Consolidation and Instructional Design
			The Second Wave: Quality Assurance and Student Support
			The Third Wave: Virtual Universities, Online Interaction, and Learning
			The Fourth Wave: AI, Big Data, and Intelligent Support Systems
		COVID-19 Pandemic: The Turning Point
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		Appendix
			Appendix A: Number of Articles Published in 26 Journals Between 2007 and 2016
		References
	14 Big Science and Little Science in Open and Distance Digital Education
		Introduction
		Big Science, Big Data
			Big Data Defined
			How Big Is Big Data?
			Data Deluge
		Little Science, Little Data
			Little Data Defined
			How Small Is Small Data?
			Data Saturation
		In Consideration of Big and Little Science for ODDE
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		Appendix
		References
Part III: Global Perspectives and Internationalization
	15 Introduction to Global Perspectives and Internationalization in ODDE
		Background
		Global Perspectives on ODDE
		Globalization and Internationalization Within ODDE
		Structure of the Section
		Conclusions and Implications for Theory, Practice, and Research
		Theory
			Revisiting Theory
		Practice
			Reconciliation of Stakeholder Perspectives
			Questioning Educational and Technological Hegemony
		Research
			Interdisciplinarity
			Comprehensive Data
			Locally Bound Research
		References
	16 Assessing the Digital Transformation of Education Systems
		Introduction
		Education Systems
		Digital Transformation
		Education Digitization Index
		Digital Transformation in Education Systems
			Digital Assets and Infrastructure
			Digital Use
			Digital Labor
			Digital Outcomes
		Digital Transformation After the Pandemic
		Conclusion and Recommendations for Future Research
		References
	17 The Impact of International Organizations on the Field of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		Current Challenges En Route to a Learning Society
		A Review of the Shape of IO Activities and Their Significance for the Field of ODDE
			Ideation Through Guidelines and Consultancy Work
			Digital Infrastructure Projects
				The African Virtual University
				Atingi Digital Learning Platform
			Multi-stakeholder Networks
				UN-Based Networks and Coalitions
				International Networks Endorsed by IOs
		Conclusion: Suggestions for ODDE and IOs
		References
	18 Online Infrastructures for Open Educational Resources
		Introduction
		Typology of Online OER Infrastructures
			OER Repositories
			OpenCourseWare
			MOOCs
			Open Textbooks
			Wikimedia Platforms
		Global, Cross-Border, National, and Regional Infrastructures
			Global Actors and Infrastructures
				OER Repositories
				OpenCourseWare
				MOOCs
				Open Textbooks
				Wikimedia
			National, Regional, and Institutional Actors and Infrastructures
				Africa
				Asia
				Middle East
				Europe
				North America
				South America
				Oceania
		Challenges and Future Research
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	19 Culture, Ethics of Care, Community, and Language in Online Learning Environments: Supporting Adult Educators in a Digital E...
		Introduction
		Concepts of Culture and Ethics in Online Learning Environments
			Culture and Context
			Cultural Inclusivity
			Ethics in Online Learning Environments
		Community
			Social Presence
			Identity
		Ethics of Care in a Learning Community
			Issues of Power
			Silence
			Privacy and Confidentiality
			Accessibility
		Language
			Language, Translanguaging, and Linguistic Inclusivity in Online Learning Environments
			Translanguaging and Communicating as Second-Language Speakers
			Linguistic Inclusivity
		Recommendations for Inclusive Online Course Design
		Future Research and Directions
			Concluding Reflections: Striving for Excellence in Students´ Online Learning Experience
		References
	20 Challenges and Opportunities for Open, Distance, and Digital Education in the Global South
		Introduction
		Definitions
		Context
		Examples of Practice
		Insights from Research and Literature
		Diversity of ODDE Models
		Policy Support
		Language
		Quality Assurance
		Assessment
		Continuous Professional Development
		Finance and Sustainability
		Open Questions and Direction for Future Research
		Implications for ODDE Practice
		Conclusion: Challenges and Opportunities
		Cross-References
		References
	21 Open, Distance, and Digital Non-formal Education in Developing Countries
		Introduction
		Characteristics and Benefits of NFE
		Mechanism to Deliver NFE
		Examples of NFE Through ODDE
		Issues and Challenges for NFE Through ODDE
		Strategies for Promoting Use of ODDE for NFE
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	22 The Borderless Market for Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		Market Expansion and Attention to Access
		Access and Inequality Related to Digital Access
		Reskilling and Upskilling the Workforce in a Growing Technology Economy
		Quality Oversight and Regulatory
		Emergent Issues and Future Research
		Conclusion
		References
	23 Virtual Internationalization as a Concept for Campus-Based and Online and Distance Higher Education
		Introduction
		Definition
		Literature on the Topic
		Dimensions of VI
		Means and Practices in VI
		The Six Pillars of VI
			Administrative Leadership, Structure, and Staffing
			Curriculum, Co-curriculum, and Learning Outcomes
			Faculty Policies and Practices
			Physical Student Mobility
			Collaboration and Partnerships
			Online and Distance Education
		Implications and Insights from the Concept of VI for the Higher Education Internationalization and ODE Discourses
		Relevance for Research
		Relevance for Primarily Campus-Based Institutions
		Relevance for ODE Providers
		Conclusion
		References
	24 International Students in Open, Distance, and Digital Higher Education
		Introduction
		Introducing Internationalization at a Distance
		Problems with Defining ``International Students´´ in ODDE
			Defining International Students According to Mobility
			Defining International Students According to Visa Status
			Defining International Students According to Geographic ``Otherness´´
			Problematic Assumptions of Binary Definitions more Broadly
			Defining ``International Students´´ in ODDE
		Understanding International Students´ Experiences
			Understanding International Distance Students´ Transition Experiences
			Gaps and Challenges in Existing Knowledge
		Conclusions and Suggestions
		References
	25 International Partnerships and Curriculum Design
		Introduction
		Educational Approaches and Concepts in International Partnerships
			Virtual Mobility
			Virtual Exchange (VE) and Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL)
		Curriculum Design: The Backbone of International (Online) Programs and Partnerships
			Curriculum Design on the Program Level: Common Models
			Curriculum Design on the Course Level: Valuable Starting Points
		Implications
		Conclusion
		References
	26 Conversations on Indigenous Centric ODDE Design
		Introduction
			Framing the Landscape
			Contextuality in Learning Design
			Relationships, Authenticity, and Identity
			The Conversation
			Concluding Thoughts
		References
	27 Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE): An Equity View
		Introduction
		Postdigital Society and Education
		Inequality in Society at Large
		Datafication of Education
		Changing Forms of Teaching and Learning Provision
			Unbundling
			Any Time, Any Space?
		Digital Inequities
		Interdependencies Between Dimensions and Their Influence on Equity in ODDE
		Theorizing Digital Participation
		Moving Forward: Foregrounding Digital Equity
		Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Organization, Leadership, and Change
	28 Introduction to Organization, Leadership, and Change in ODDE
		Introduction
		The Organization of Section 4
		The Impact of the Pandemic on ODDE
		The Need for Change in Our Post-secondary Institutions
		Lessons Learned from ODDE Experiences of the Past Five Decades
			Accessibility
			Marketing
			Cost
			Quality
				Professional Development
				Strategic Planning
				Partnerships
				Innovation
		Implications for Government and Institutional Leadership
		Where Do We Go from Here?
		Cross-References
		References
	29 Running Distance Education at Scale
		Introduction: Distance Education Diversifies
		Why Conduct Distance Education at Scale?
		Open Universities
		Open Schools
		Massive Open Online Courses
		Institutional Design and Organization
		Governance, Management and Administration
		Leadership
		Conclusion
		References
	30 Open Schools in Developing Countries
		Introduction
			The COVID-19 Pandemic Experience
			Access to Virtual Schooling
			Challenges of Online Pedagogy
			The ODL-Based Schooling System in India
		Inclusive ODL-Based Education and Flexible Schools: Developing Countries Potential Pathway
			Threshold 1: Issues of Access
			Threshold 2: Issues of Learning Support
			Threshold 3: Issues of Systems
		Conclusion
		References
	31 Leading in Changing Times
		Introduction
		Competing Images of the Future
		Developing Multifocal Leadership
		The DCU Story
		Strategically Embedding Digital Learning
		The NIDL as an Innovation Incubator
		Shaping the Discourse
		Leveraging Strategic Partnerships
		Toward a Culture of Continuous Improvement
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	32 ODDE Strategic Positioning in the Post-COVID-19 Era
		Introduction
			Strategic Planning and Strategic Positioning
			The Context: The Pandemic and Strategy Development in Higher Education
			Strategy Development in Government
			The Particular Demands for ODDE Institutions
		Strategic Planning for ODDE in South Africa
			University Education System in South Africa (SA)
			The Special Role of Saide
			COVID-19 in South Africa
			Learning from the COVID Experience
			Role of ODDE in the University Sector
			The Iron Triangle
			Open Learning Principles
			Strategic Positioning for both ODDE and Traditional Institutions
				Shaping the System Toward National Goals
				Institutional Strategies
		Summary: Lessons Learned for Better Strategy Development
		References
	33 Resilient Leadership in Time of Crisis in Distance Education Institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa
		Introduction
		Futures Research Triangle
		Weights of the Past
		The Push of the Present
		The Pull to the Future
		Conclusion
		References
	34 ODDE and Debts
		Introduction: Crises, Money, and the State
		A Brief History of DE from a Costing Perspective
			Traditional Distance Education
			Online Distance Education
			Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE)
			From HCT1 to HCT2
		Modern Money Theory (MMT)
			MMT Basics
			Sector Analysis and the Mechanics of Balance Sheets
			Fiat Money
			Normative Extensions
		Covid, Conclusions, and Caveats
		Cross-References
		References
	35 Institutional Partnerships and Collaborations in Online Learning
		Introduction
		Types of Partnerships and Collaborations
			Propositional Collaborations
			Cooperative
			Mutual Service Alliances
		Examples of Collaborations and Partnerships in Practice: Formation, Value, and Sustainability
			Commonwealth of Learning: Regional Centres
			The Partnership for Enhanced and Blended Learning
			Leveraging Resources Through Partnerships Within University and College Systems
		Factors That Promote Sustainability or Facilitate Strategic Pivots in Effective Collaborations or Partnerships
		Conclusion
		References
	36 Marketing Online and Distance Learning
		Introduction: Understanding Context
		The Products and Services Have Changed Over Time: Posing New Marketing Challenges and Opportunities
			The 1970s Positioning the New and Responding to Issues About Quality
			1994 and the Arrival of Online Learning
			2012 MOOCs and the Globalization of Learning
			2020 and the Pivot to Online During the Pandemic
		The Process of Marketing Online and Distance Learning Services
			Element 1: Building the Brand Story: Differentiation
			Element 2: Target Marketing and Market Segmentation
			Element 3: Mining Niche Markets and Services
			Element 4: Social Media and Digital Marketing
			Element 5: Focus on Retention Not Just Attraction
			Element 6: Using Analytics and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) Systems to Track Return on Marketing Investment
			Even After 50 Years, Marketing Still Has to Address Some Persistent Issues
			``Face to Face is Best and Online and Distance are Not as Good´´
			``The Loneliness of the Long-Distance Learner´´
			``It Must Be Easier to Do Online, and Therefore It Should Be Cheaper: After All, There is Not as Much Instruction´´
			``It Is Easy to Cheat in an Online Course: So Where Is the Quality?´´
		Conclusion
		References
	37 Managing Innovation in Teaching in ODDE
		What Is Meant by ``Innovation´´?
		Why Is Innovation So Important in ODDE?
			Innovation Is Part of the Lifeblood of ODDE
			Innovation: Technology or Teaching?
			Why Is Innovation So Difficult in ODDE?
			Some Lessons About Innovation in ODDE
		Literature Review
		Five Destructive ``myths´´ About Innovation
		Barriers to Innovation and Change
		Strategies to Support Innovative Teaching
			Think Holistically
			Multiple Visions of Teaching and Learning
			Strategic Goals for Teaching and Learning
			An Annual Academic Planning Process That Includes Innovation in Teaching
			Funding to Support Innovative Teaching
			The OECD´s Solution
		A Case Study
		Is Innovation ``manageable´´?
		Summary and Conclusion
		References
	38 Transforming Conventional Education through ODDE
		Introduction
		Terminology: Conventional Education, ODDE, and Transformation
			Emergency Remote Teaching and ODDE
			The Nature of Transformation
		Why Transform?
			Facing Up to the Challenges
			Moving from a Supply-Centric Orientation
		Transforming to and Within ODDE
			Managing a Transformation
		Conclusion
		References
	39 Academic Professional Development to Support Mixed Modalities
		Introduction
		Context
		Literature
			The Cases
				Case 1: OU UK - Applaud
					Setting the Stage
					Challenge
					Solution
					Results
				Case 2: RMIT
					Setting the Stage
					Challenge
					Solution
					Results
		Conclusion
		References
Part V: Infrastructure, Quality Assurance, and Support Systems
	40 Introduction to Infrastructure, Quality Assurance, and Support Systems of ODDE
		Introduction
		The Organization of Section 5
		Institutional Infrastructures in the Pre- and Post-Internet Era
			Infrastructure for Course Materials Development and Student Support Services
			Technological Infrastructure
		Cross-Generational Infrastructures: Library Services and Quality Assurance
			Library Service and Digital Library
			Quality Assurance
		The Sharing Paradigm: Open Educational Resources and Creative Commons
		The Future: Metaverse-Based ODDE
		Conclusion
		References
	41 Institutional Infrastructures for Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Dynamic Development of Institutional Infrastructures
		Overview of the Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
			Standard Institutional Infrastructure Model for ODDE
			Evolving the Institutional Infrastructure Model for ODDE
		Considerations for an Integrated Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
			Infrastructure for Planning, Marketing, and Recruitment of Programs for ODDE
			Institutional Infrastructure for Libraries and Educational ODDE Materials
			Institutional Infrastructure to Support Research in ODDE
			Institutional Infrastructure to Support Evolving ODDE Course Delivery
		Institutional IT Infrastructure for ODDE
			Developing Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
		The Impact of Advancements in IT on the Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
			Cloud Computing and Software as a Service
			Bring Your Own Cloud
			Artificial Intelligence, Adaptive learning, and Learning Analytics
			Mobile Learning
		The Impact of the User Experience on the Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
		Impact of Covid-19 on Institutional Infrastructure for ODDE
		Infrastructure Supports for Emergent Areas
		Concluding Remarks: Open Questions and Directions for ODDE Practice
		References
	42 Quality Assurance in Online, Open, and Distance Education
		Introduction: Defining Quality and Quality Assurance in ODE
		Judging and Assuring Quality in ODE
			Accreditation and QA Frameworks at National, Regional, and International Levels
			Institutional QA Systems
		Conclusion: Future of QA in ODE Institutions
		References
	43 Quality Assurance at Mega Universities
		Introduction
		Quality Assurance at Universitas Terbuka (Indonesia Open University)
			General Overview of Universitas Terbuka
			The Nature and Importance of QA at UT
			UT´s Internal Quality Assurance System
			Lessons Learned
		Quality Assurance at Mega University: Open University of China
			General Overview of the Open University of China (OUC)
			The Overview of QA at OUC
			OUC´s QA Organizational Structure
			The Quality Standards
			The QA Procedure and Mechanism
			The Internal QA System
			The External QA System
				Quality Monitoring from the Educational Administration
				Quality Management from the ODL Association
				Quality Evaluation from the Employers and Learners
				Achievements and Challenges
					Achievements
					Challenges
		Conclusion
		References
	44 Quality Assurance Systems for Digital Higher Education in Europe
		Introduction
			Quality in Digital Higher Education
			Quality Assurance: Multi-Stakeholder Perspectives
			Multilevel Approach
			Learning Outcomes and Processes
			Quality Criteria and Benchmarking
			Quality and Maturity
		Quality Assurance Systems in Distance Teaching Universities in Europe
			E-xcellence: Quality Benchmarking for Blended and Online Education
				A Manual
				A Benchmarking Instrument
				Internal Quality Assurance Leading to the E-xcellence Associate in Quality Label
			The SEQUENT Handbook for Quality in E-Learning Procedures
				ENQA Considerations for QA of E-Learning Provision
			Peer Learning Activity on Quality Assurance in Online Education
			The European Maturity Model for Blended Education (EMBED)
			ICDE Quality Models in Online and Open Education Around the Globe: State of the Art and Recommendations (2015)
		Challenges and Directions for the Future
			University-Level Developments
				Post-corona Pedagogies in Degree Education
				Rethinking and Upscaling Continuing Education and Professional Development
				MOOCs and MOOC-Based Microcredentials
			Policy Developments
				The Digital Education Action Plan (DEAP)
				The European Education Area
				The European Universities Initiatives (EUIs)
		Conclusions
			More Complexity in Digital Higher Education
			Quality Assurance in Digital Education
			Quality Instruments
			Challenges
				Degree Education
				Continuing Education
				Collaborations and Mobility that Transcend the Individual University
			National Governments and Universities: Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes
		References
	45 Program and Course Evaluation in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		The QA Frameworks for ODDE: The Domains That Matter
			Course Development
			Educational Technology
			Program and Course Evaluation
		Program and Course Evaluation in ODDE: Perspectives and Practices
			The Openness Attribute
			The Mode of Instructional Delivery
			The ICT Integration
			Recommendations for ODDE Program and Course Evaluation
		Innovating on the Program and Course Evaluation: The Role of Technology
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	46 Quality Assurance of Open Educational Resources
		Introduction
		An International Perspective on Quality Assurance Systems for OER
			National and Regional Guidelines and Actors
			Institutional Guidelines and Actors
			Faculty Perceptions About OER Quality Assurance for Teaching and Learning
		Toward a Quality Model and an Assessment Instrument for OER
			OER Quality Model
			The Instrument for Quality Assurance of OER (IQOER)
		Implementing a Process of Quality Assurance for OER
			Aim of Quality Assessment
			Time of Quality Assessment
			Raters
			Level of Interaction
			OER and OEP
			Quality Standards and Quality Culture
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	47 Accreditation and Recognition of Prior Learning in Higher Education
		Introduction
		The Recognition of Prior Learning
			RPL: What It Is, What It Is Not
		The Philosophy and Practice of RPL
		RPL Benefits Learners
		Institutional Infrastructure and Process for RPL
		New Patterns of Accreditation of Students´ Learning
			Micro-credentialling in Higher Education
		RPL and Assessment in the Larger Picture: Issues of Equity, Access, and Inclusion
			RPL and Social Justice
			Future Potential and Challenges for RPL
		Final Words
		References
	48 Digital Information and Library Services in ODDE
		Introduction
		Background of the Digital Library Reference Model
		Composition of the Digital Library System
			User
			Content
			Policies
			Functionality
			Architecture
			Quality
		Other Actors in the Digital Library Universe
			Initial Framework for Developing Digital Libraries for ODDE
			Strategic Planning and Policy Development
			Digital Collections and Information Services
			Technological Infrastructure and Skills Development
			The Collaborative Model for Implementing Digital Libraries in ODDE
			Enhancing Seamless Information Access in ODDE Through Inter-library Cooperation
			Embedded Library Services as an Anchor of Collaboration
			A Framework for the Collaborative Digital Library Model in ODDE
		Conclusion
		References
	49 Evolving Learner Support Systems
		Introduction
		Learner Support Variables and Frameworks
			Support Variables
			Support Frameworks
		Technology and Learner Support
		Management of Learner Support Services
		Issues, Challenges, and Suggestions
			Independence Versus Interaction
			Culture and Learner Support
			Gender and Learner Support
			Disability and Learner Support
			Technology-Enabled Learner Support
			Ethics of Learner Support
			Quality and Parity of Esteem
		Research
		Conclusion
		References
	50 Administrative Support System
		Introduction
		Applying a Holistic Approach to Institutional Change
		Aligning Administrative Support with a New Learning Ecosystem
			Policies
			Pedagogical Approach
			Learner Support
			Technological Infrastructure
			Learning Resources
			Assessment and Certification
			Communication
			Quality Assurance
		From Digital Transition to Digital Transformation
		Role-Changing: Redesigning Professional Development
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	51 Supporting Learners with Special Needs in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		Learners with Special Needs in ODDE
		Challenges Encountered by Learners with Special Needs in ODDE
		Learner Support Systems in ODDE
		Supporting Learners with Special Needs in ODDE
			Accessibility
			Universal Design for Learning
			Assistive Technologies
			Accommodations or Adaptations Offered by ODDE Institutions
		Further Remarks: Equity, Equality, and Justice
		Conclusion
		References
Part VI: Learners, Teachers, Media, and Technology
	52 Introduction to Learners, Teachers, Media, and Technology in ODDE
		Introduction
		A People-First Approach to ODDE
		An Overview of Chapters
		Synthesis Across Chapters
		Conclusion
		References
	53 Learner Characteristics and Competencies
		Introduction
		Adoption of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
			Learning in the New Century
			Technology Access, Socioeconomic Status, and Demographics
		Implications for Open, Distance, and Digital Education Environments
			Initial Access to Technology
			Technology Maintenance
			Access Location
			Mobile Device Dependency
			Lack of Supporting Tools
		Competencies of the New Century
		Competencies in Open, Distance, and Digital Education Environments
			Information Literacy
			Communication and Collaboration
			Design and Development
			Administration
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	54 Motivation to Learn in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
			Motivation and Its Outcomes in ODDE Environments
				Motivation Definition and Framework for Interpretation
				Motivation Theories Central to Understanding ODDE Experiences
		Motivation in Open, Digital and Distance Education
			Primary Education
			Secondary School
			Tertiary and Lifelong Education
		Critical Insights from Researching Motivation in ODDE
			General Insights
				ODDE Has Matured
				Context and Individual Differences
			Specific to Primary Education
			Specific to Secondary Education
			Specific to Tertiary and Adult Education
		Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
			When Will Motivational Theory Be Stretched to Fit ODDE Experiences?
			When Will Digital Education´s Affordances Really Drive Life-Long Learning?
			When Will Gamification´s Potential Contributions Be Clarified?
			Doing More of What We Know Works
		Implications for ODDE Practice that Arise from this Research
			Robust Motivational Theories for the Road Ahead
			ODDE Motivation Research Design and Analysis Must Improve to Be Substantive
			Stop Asking Whether and Start Asking for Whom and How
		References
	55 ODDE and Gender
		Introduction
		Gender Issues in Distance Education: Historical Context
			The Situation of Women in Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
				Women Working in ODL
				Women Distance Students
			Feminist Perspectives and ODL
				Women´s/Gender Studies (WGS) and Distance Education
				Feminist Pedagogy and New Horizons for Women
		Issues of Equity and Empowerment
			Gender Roles and the Social Division of Labor
				A Woman´s Work Is Never Done
				Making Time for Her Studies
			Learning Environments
				Home Study
				Privatized Learning Environments
				Taking Control of the Learning Environment
			Access Equity
				Factors Affecting Access to Education
				Opening Educational Opportunities
			Gendered Course Content and Choice of Subject
		Feminist Perspectives on Women and Technology
			Availability of ICTs in ODE
			Acceptance of Technology
				Factors Affecting Women´s Participation in E-Learning
				Women Using Technology for Communication
			Internet Communication and Empowerment
		Closing Remarks
		References
	56 Media Usage Behaviors of Learners in ODDE
		Introduction
		Media Evolution in Open, Distance, and Digital Education: A Historical View
		From Learning from Media to Learning with Media
		Learners´ Media Usage Behaviors
			Media Usage Typologies: Media in General
			Media Usage Typologies: Learning-Related Usage Behaviors and Media Trends
			Dimensions in Media Usage Typologies
		Research in Learners´ Media Usage Behaviors
		Future of Learners´ Media Usage
			Future Directions of Research in Learners´ Media Usage
			Future of Media Development
		Conclusion
		References
	57 Synchronous Tools for Interaction and Collaboration
		Introduction
		Evolution of Synchronous Communication in Distance Education
		Affordances and Constraints of Synchronous Communication
		Overview of Synchronous Tools
			Audio-based Tools: Telephone and Audio Teleconferencing
			Text-based Tools: Chat and Messaging
			Video-based Tools: Video and Web Conferencing
			Other Synchronous and Semi-Synchronous Tools
		Implications for Research and Practice
		References
	58 Asynchronous Tools for Interaction and Collaboration
		Introduction
		A Brief Review of Early and Current Research
			Defining Interaction and Collaboration
		Asynchronous Tools for Teaching and Learning
			Background on Asynchronous Tools and Use of Technologies
		Background on Asynchronous Tools and Use of Strategies
		Instructional Design Strategies for Asynchronous Teaching and Learning
		Two Issues Within ODDE Environments to Ponder
		Summary and Conclusion
			Suggestions for Future Research
			Implications for Practice
		References
	59 Learning Analytics in Open, Distance, and Digital Education (ODDE)
		Introduction
		Overview of LA and Its Relevance
			What Is the Relevance of LA for ODDE?
		Guiding Theories
		Theoretical Influences
		Selected Major Research and Discourses in LA
			The Adoption and Institutionalization of LA
			LA As Informing Learning Design and Pedagogy
			Where Is the Evidence? Mapping the Impact of LA
			Ethics and Privacy in LA
		Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
		Implications for ODDE Practice
		References
	60 The Rise of Multimodal Tutors in Education
		Introduction
			An Historical Perspective on Education Technologies
			Outline of This Book Chapter
		Main Findings
			Research Study: Learning Pulse
				Findings
			Literature Study on Multimodal Data for Learning
				Findings
			Position Paper: The ``Big Five´´ Challenges
				Findings
			Technical Implementation: The Multimodal Learning Hub
				Findings
			Technical Implementation: The Visual Inspection Tool
				Findings
			Position Paper: The Multimodal Pipeline
				Findings
			Feasibility Study: Detecting CPR Mistakes
				Findings
			Research Study: Keep Me in The Loop
				Findings
		Limitations
		Conclusion
		References
	61 Automated Essay Scoring Systems
		Introduction
		Synopsis of Automated Scoring Systems
		Functions of Automated Scoring Systems
		Overview of Automated Scoring Systems
		Open Questions and Directions for Research
		Implications for Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Cross-References
		References
	62 The Role of the Online Instructor
		Introduction
		Background and Context
		Pedagogical Role
		Managerial Role
		Social Role
		Technological Role
		Ethical Dimension
		Network Dimension
		Conclusion
		References
	63 Developing Digital Literacy for Teaching and Learning
		Introduction
		What Is ``Digital Literacy´´?
		Digital Literacy Frameworks in Education
			General Focus (Learners)
			Focus on Educators
		Strategies to Foster Digital Literacy in Education
			K-12 and Secondary Education
			Higher Education
			Vocational Education
			Continuing Education
			Lifelong Learning
		Challenges and Future Research
		Conclusion
		References
	64 Future Skills as New Currency for the World of Tomorrow
		Future Skills: Guiding Principles of a New Educational Concept for Higher Education Institutions
		Research Design
		Future Skills for the World of Tomorrow
		Future Skill Profiles of the NextSkills Study
		The Future Skills Triple Helix Model
		Changing Contexts of Life and Work
			Shift 1: From Standardization to Self-organization
			Shift 2: From Knowledge to Competence
			Shift 3: From Hierarchical to Networked Organizations
		Conclusion
		References
	65 Online Doctoral Education
		Introduction
		Review Methods
		Findings and Discussions
			What Are the Stated Reasons for the Development of Online Doctoral Education?
				Growth in Online Higher Education
				Growth in Professional Doctoral Education
				Demands in the Professional Field
				Internationalization of Education
				Social Justice-Oriented Rationale
			What Are the Stated Pedagogical Concerns About Online Doctoral Programs?
				Flexibility and Structure
				Isolation and Community
				Technology Anxiety and Research Literacy
				Diversity and Inequality
			What Are the Stated Theoretical Approaches to Conceptualizing Online Doctoral Studies?
				Constructivist Learning Theories
				Community of Inquiry and Community of Practice
				Transformative Learning Theory
		Conclusion
		References
Part VII: Design, Delivery, and Assessment
	66 Introduction to Design, Delivery, and Assessment in ODDE
		Introduction
		Organization of Section 7
		Overarching Themes
			Originary Theory to Guide ODDE Design
			The Need for Research to Expand Beyond Study of Individuals in Higher Education
			ODDE Learning Can Be Effective
			Standards to Guide ODDE Design
			How Assessment Supports Learning
		Designing the Future of Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Cross-References
		References
	67 Blended Learning Research and Practice
		Introduction
		What Is Blended Learning?
		What Are Common Models of Blended Learning?
		What Is Happening with Blended Learning Internationally?
		What Blended Learning Frameworks Are Being Used by Researchers?
		What Are Some Important Areas of Research in Blended Learning?
			Institutional Issues
			Faculty Issues
			Student Issues
		Conclusion
		References
	68 Flipped Learning
		Introduction
		What Is Flipped Learning? The Definitions of Flipped Learning
		The History of Flipped Learning Practice
		Theories and Research Evidence Supporting Flipped Learning
		Growth of Flipped Learning Research
		Flipped Learning Benefits
		Factors Affecting Flipped Learning Effectiveness
		Remaining Challenges and Possible Solutions
		Fully Online Flipped Learning, Bichronous Online Learning, and HyFlex Learning
		Future of Flipped Learning Practices and Research
		References
	69 Digital Credential Evolution
		Introduction
		Definitions
		What Research on Open Microcredentials Has Taught Us
			How Do Open Microcredentials Affect Learning in the Microlevel?
				Learner Perceptions on Open Microcredentials
				Open Microcredentials and Student Motivation
				Open Microcredentials and Student Learning
				Open Microcredentials and Personalized Learning
				Open Microcredentials and Self-regulated Learning
			How Can Open Microcredentials Support Learning in the Mesolevel?
				Microcredentials Can Communicate Pathways Towards End Goals
				Microcredentials Can Communicate Their Value and Make Organizational Goals Visible
				Microcredentials Can Widen Participation in Higher Education
				Microcredentials Can Be Interwoven with Traditional Credentials
				Microcredentials Can Assist Employers in Tracking/Providing Professional Learning
			How Can Open Microcredentials Support Learning in the Macrolevel?
				Connecting Formal and Informal Learning
				Enhancing Lifelong and Community-Based Learning
				Improving the Credibility of Credentialing
				Open Microcredentials in Different Cultures
		Conclusion
		References
	70 Designing Online Learning in Higher Education
		Introduction
		Importance of Design in Online Learning
		A Brief Overview of Online Course Design Research in Higher Education
		Standards and Rubrics for Online Course Design
		Online Course Design Elements (OCDE)
		Instructor Preparation and Support for Online Course Design
		Role of Instructional Designers in Online Course Design
		Recommendations for Instructors and Designers and Future Research
		References
	71 Using Social Media in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction: ODDE as an Emerging Field
		Web Technologies: Collective Intelligence and the Global Brain
		Social Media: Revisiting Its Definition and Concepts that Make It Popular
		Educational Affordances and Limitations of Social Media
		An Examination of Social Media in Terms of the Theoretical Underpinnings of ODDE
		Reflections and Insights from Research on Social Media
		Conclusion and Suggestions
		Cross-References
		Appendix
			Appendix A: Information on research corpus and search queries adopted for the inclusion criteria
		References
	72 Serious Games and Game-Based Learning
		Introduction
		Definition and Characteristics of Serious Games and Game-Based Learning
		Theoretical Foundations
		Empirical Contributions
		Design Features Influencing Motivation, Affect, and Learning Outcomes in Games
		Conclusion
		References
	73 Designing Online Learning Environments to Support Problem-Based Learning
		Introduction
		The PBL Essentials
		A Pedagogical Framework for Online PBL Design
			Preparation and Planning
			Design and Development
			Implementation and Facilitation
			Assessment
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	74 Designing Online Learning for Children and Youth
		Introduction
		Online Courses and Design Models
		The 4Es: Goals when Designing and Assessing Learning in Online Environments
			Enable
			Engage
			Extend
			Elevate
		ACE: A Framework for Supporting Online Student Engagement
		Implications
			Need for Additional Learning Opportunities/Experience for Teachers
			Teacher Education Programs
		Conclusion
		References
	75 Student Engagement in Open, Distance, and Digital Education
		Introduction
		What Is Student Engagement?
		Sociocultural Positioning of Student Engagement
		The Mesosystem Level
		The Microsystem Level
		Indicators of Student Engagement in ODDE
		Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
		References
	76 Dimensions of Assessment in Online and Open Education in Terms of Purpose, Function and Theory
		Introduction
		Assessment Purposes/Functions
			Conformative, Deformative, and Transformative Assessment Functions
			Prior Learning Assessment
		Learning Theory
			Differential Theories
			Cognitive-Associationist Theories
			Cognitive-Constructivist Theories
			Situative/Sociocultural Theories
		Conclusion
		References
	77 Designing Online Learning Communities
		Introduction
		The Roots of Online Learning
		The Community of Inquiry Theoretical Framework
		Community-Based Design and Delivery in Three Presences
		CoI and Learning Assessment
		Conclusion
		References
	78 Synergies Among the Pillars
		Introduction
		CSCL: An Overview
		Effects of CSCL on Learning
		Open Questions and Directions for Future Research
		Implications for ODDE
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	79 Informal Learning in Digital Contexts
		Introduction
		Digital Contexts Are Different
			The Darker Sides of Digital Technologies
		Informal Learning in a Digital Context
			Social Informal Learning
				An Example: Reddit
				The Power of the Collective
			Self-Teaching Resources
				An Example: Online Videos for Informal Learning
			Supporting the Informal Learning Process
				Supportive Physical Contexts
				Sharing and Reflecting
				Tracking Progress
			Credentialing Informal Learning
				Challenge Assessments
				Storing and Sharing Credentials
		Conclusion
		References
	80 Instructional Quality and Learning Design of Massive Open Online Courses
		Introduction
		History and Characteristics of MOOCs
		Frameworks, Instruments, and Tools for MOOCs
			Online Courses: Their Platforms and Current Practices
			Standards and Norms for Online Learning, Courses, and MOOCs
		Quality, Learning Design, and Outcomes of MOOCs
		Benefits, Arguments, and Scenarios for Using MOOCs
		Categories and Types of (Massive Open) Online Courses
		Conclusion
		References
Index