Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing: Principles and Practices

Cover......Page 1
Handbook of Natural Gas Transmission and Processing: Principles and Practices, Fourth Edition
......Page 2
Preface to the Fourth Edition......Page 9
Disclaimer......Page 4
Dedication......Page 5
9.1 Introduction......Page 314
Appendix 2......Page 7
21 . Real-Time Optimization of Gas Processing Plants......Page 11
1.2 Natural Gas History......Page 15
1.3 Natural Gas Origin and Sources......Page 16
1.3.2 Unconventional Gas......Page 17
1.4 Natural Gas Composition and Classification......Page 18
1.5 Natural Gas Phase Behavior......Page 19
1.6.1 Chemical and Physical Properties......Page 21
1.6.1.1 Gas Specific Gravity......Page 22
1.6.1.2 Gas Compressibility Factor......Page 23
1.6.1.4 Gas Density......Page 27
1.6.1.6 Gas Viscosity......Page 28
1.6.2.1 Specific Heat......Page 29
1.7 Natural Gas Reserves......Page 30
1.8.1.2 Drilling......Page 31
1.8.1.4 Production......Page 32
1.8.2.1 Exploration......Page 34
1.8.2.4 Production......Page 35
1.8.3 Well Deliverability......Page 36
1.9 Natural Gas Gathering......Page 37
1.10.1 Pipelines......Page 38
1.10.2 Liquefied Natural Gas......Page 39
1.10.3 Compressed Natural Gas......Page 40
1.10.4 Gas-to-Liquids......Page 41
1.10.6 Gas-to-Wire......Page 42
1.10.7 Comparison Between Various Methods......Page 43
1.11 Natural Gas Processing......Page 45
1.13 Underground Gas Storage......Page 46
References......Page 47
2.2.1 Single-Component Systems......Page 50
10.2 Mercury in Natural Gas Stream......Page 356
2.2.2 Binary Systems......Page 52
20.4.1 Flow Rate......Page 620
2.2.4 Phase Envelopes of Petroleum Fluids......Page 59
2.2.5.1 Introduction: Phase Variables Versus Global Variables......Page 60
9.3.5.2 Glycol Purity......Page 61
16.3.2.3 Orifice Meters......Page 501
2.2.5.5 Gibbs Phase Rule......Page 63
2.2.5.6 Calculation Principle of a Phase Envelope......Page 64
2.2.5.7 Calculation Principle of a PT Flash......Page 65
2.3.1 Some Words About Cubic Equations of State History......Page 67
2.3.2 General Presentation of Cubic Equations of State......Page 71
24.5.2.4 Qualitative Project Risk Management......Page 778
2.3.3 Discussion About the Mixing Rules to Be Used to Model the Phase Behavior and Enthalpies of Natural Gases With Cubic Equatio .........Page 75
3.4.3.2 Drift Flux Model......Page 77
2.3.3.2.1 The Abdoul–Rauzy–Péneloux Model......Page 79
2.3.3.2.2.1 Presentation......Page 80
2.3.3.2.3 Soave's GCM......Page 82
18.8.1.7 Forced Draft......Page 568
2.3.3.4 Other Mixing Rules......Page 84
2.3.3.4.1.2 The Van der Waals One-Fluid (VdW1f) Mixing Rules......Page 85
2.3.3.4.1.3 The Wong–Sandler Mixing Rules......Page 87
2.3.3.4.2.1 The MHV-1 Mixing Rule......Page 88
2.3.3.4.2.3 The Universal Mixing Rule of Peng–Robinson and Volume-Translated Peng–Robinson Models......Page 89
2.3.4 Energetic Aspects: Estimation of Enthalpies From Cubic EoS......Page 90
2.3.4.1 Calculation of Pure-Component Enthalpies......Page 91
2.3.4.3 Practical Use of Enthalpies of Mixing and Illustration With the PPR78 Model......Page 92
2.4 Natural Gases Phase Behavior Modeling With SAFT-type EoS......Page 93
13.7.1 Fluor Propane Recovery Plant......Page 95
20.6.3 Sulfur Recovery......Page 628
7.5 Physical Solvent Processes......Page 254
8.6 Sulfur Storage and Handling......Page 100
24.7 Commissioning and Start-up......Page 102
11.8 NGL Fractionation......Page 391
References......Page 107
Index......Page 787
3.2 Multiphase Flow Terminology......Page 115
16.3.1 Quantity Meters......Page 116
3.2.5 Slip......Page 117
11.3.3 Deep Hydrocarbon Dew pointing Unit (DDP)......Page 118
3.2.9 Mixture Enthalpy......Page 119
21.2.2.7.1 Tray-to-Tray Distillation Method......Page 120
3.3.1.1.3 Stratified (Smooth and Wavy) Flow......Page 121
21.2.2.7.4 Depropanizer......Page 655
3.3.1.2 Vertical Flow Regimes......Page 122
3.3.1.2.4 Annular Flow......Page 123
9.3.6.2 Regenerator......Page 124
3.3.2 Three-Phase Flow Regimes......Page 125
22.5.3 Exergy Associated to Heat......Page 126
19.4.1 Shortcut Versus Rigorous Models......Page 584
15.5.1.5 Shutdown and Venting Systems......Page 127
3.4.1.2.1 Lockhart and Martinelli Method......Page 128
3.4.1.2.2 Beggs and Brill Method......Page 129
3.4.1.3 Mechanistic Models......Page 132
22.5.6 Definition of the Exergy Efficiency......Page 699
3.4.3 Transient Multiphase Flow......Page 133
3.4.3.1 Two Fluid Model......Page 134
3.4.4 Multiphase Gas and Condensate Flow......Page 135
18.5 Nitrogen System......Page 555
3.6 Velocity Criteria for Sizing Multiphase Pipelines......Page 138
9.7.1 Gas Treating Unit......Page 350
3.7.1 Leak Detection......Page 140
3.7.3 Pigging......Page 141
References......Page 355
3.8.1 Gas Hydrates......Page 143
3.8.1.1 Hydrate Locus for Natural Gas Components......Page 144
3.8.1.2.1 K-Factor Method......Page 145
3.8.1.2.3 Gas Gravity Method......Page 148
3.8.1.2.4 Commercial Software Programs......Page 150
3.8.1.3 Hydrate Prevention Techniques......Page 152
3.8.1.3.2.1 Types of Inhibitors......Page 153
3.8.1.3.2.2 Prediction of Inhibitor Requirements......Page 156
3.8.1.3.2.3 Design of Injection Systems......Page 157
3.8.2 Corrosion......Page 158
3.8.2.1 Choice of Corrosion-Resistant Metals......Page 159
20.6.5.2 Refrigeration......Page 630
3.8.2.5 Corrosion Monitoring......Page 161
3.8.3.1.1 Wax Deposition Envelope......Page 162
3.8.3.1.2 Gas–Condensate Wax Deposition Envelope......Page 163
3.8.3.2 Wax Formation in Multiphase Gas–Condensate Pipelines......Page 167
3.8.3.2.1 Identification of Wax Deposition Problems......Page 168
3.8.3.2.2 Wax Deposition Inhibition/Prevention......Page 169
3.8.3.2.4 Controlled Production of Wax Deposits......Page 171
3.8.4.2 Terrain Induced Slugging......Page 172
3.8.4.3 Riser Induced (Severe) Slugging......Page 173
3.8.4.3.1 Severe Slugging Mechanism......Page 174
3.8.4.3.2 Stability Analysis......Page 176
3.8.4.3.3.2 Topside Choking......Page 177
3.8.4.3.3.3 Control Methods......Page 178
3.8.4.4 Operationally Induced Slugging......Page 179
3.8.5.1 Phase I: Assessing Flow Assurance Risks......Page 180
3.8.5.6 Phase VI: Real Time Flow Assurance Monitoring......Page 181
References......Page 182
22 . Energy and Exergy Analyses of Natural Gas Processing Plants......Page 189
22.2 Fundamentals of Energy Analyses......Page 671
20.3 Microprocessor-Based Automation......Page 190
4.3.1 Gas Plant With Hydrocarbon Dew Point Controlling......Page 191
24.4.1.1 The Project Charter......Page 767
4.3.1.3 Acid Gas Removal......Page 192
21.2.2.6 Expander Model......Page 193
24.5.2.1 Project Risk Management Methodology......Page 327
9.4.2.4 Comparison of Different Adsorbents......Page 194
22.5.10.3 Rich Feed Conditions......Page 195
4.3.2.4 Natural Gas Liquid Recovery and Fractionation......Page 196
D......Page 799
14.5 Compressor Selection......Page 198
18.3.1 Compressed Air System Design......Page 549
21.4.1 Process Description......Page 199
12.5.1 Feed Gas Characteristics......Page 200
13.7 High-Nitrogen Feed Gas......Page 201
19 . Process Modeling and Simulation of Gas Processing Plants......Page 581
19.2 Thermodynamics......Page 202
5.2.1 General Description......Page 203
13.4.2 Ethane Production......Page 418
5.2.2.2 Vertical Separators......Page 205
5.2.3 Gravity Separation Theory......Page 206
5.2.4 Design Considerations......Page 208
5.4 Centrifugal Separators......Page 209
5.5 Twister Supersonic Separator......Page 210
10.6 Mercury Removal From Natural Gas......Page 362
11.7 NGL Recovery Unit Operating Problems......Page 214
20.4.2.2 Thermocouples......Page 622
5.7.2 Coalescer Construction/Operation Principles......Page 215
7.7.1 Iron Sponge Process......Page 266
9.3.6.1 Absorber......Page 217
22.4.1.3 Mechanical Work Estimation......Page 218
5.7.3.4 Determination of Minimum Housing Diameter......Page 219
5.8.1 Emulsions......Page 220
7.7.4.1 Chemsweet Process......Page 267
13.7.2 Fluor Ethane Recovery Revamp......Page 392
13.8.1 Nitrogen-Rejection and Helium-Recovery Block Flow Diagram......Page 221
5.8.3.3 Separation of Coalesced Droplets......Page 222
5.8.5 Limitations of Using Coalescers......Page 224
20.7.1 Data Historians......Page 633
14.9 Compressor Control......Page 225
Modified Situation......Page 226
References......Page 227
A......Page 229
13.2 Unconventional Gas......Page 230
15.2.2 Friction Factor Correlations......Page 231
17.2.3 Initial Start-Up Procedures......Page 514
6.2.3.1 Stabilizer Column Pressure......Page 233
21.2.2 Optimization Models......Page 288
10.3 Mercury-Related Issues......Page 234
23.4 Organizational Behavior Model......Page 235
6.4.2 Sour Water Stripping......Page 236
12.5 Nitrogen Rejection Unit Design Considerations......Page 237
20.4.5 Speed......Page 238
10 . Mercury Removal......Page 240
17.1 Introduction......Page 512
7.4 Chemical Solvent Processes......Page 241
7.4.1.1 Monoethanolamine......Page 242
15.5.1.3 Compressor Drivers......Page 243
7.4.1.6 Sterically Hindered Amines......Page 244
7.4.1.7 Amine Processes......Page 245
7.4.1.7.1 Two-Stage Absorption Process......Page 247
7.4.1.7.2 Double Absorption Process......Page 248
7.4.1.8.3 Lean Amine Feed Locations......Page 249
7.4.1.8.5 Design Guidelines......Page 250
7.4.1.9 Amine Unit Operating Problems......Page 251
7.5.1.1 Fluor Solvent Unit......Page 256
7.5.1.2 Innovations in Fluor Solvent Process......Page 259
17.2.4 Process Commissioning......Page 260
7.5.2.2 Dimethyl Ether of Polyethylene Glycol Carbon Capture Process......Page 261
7.5.2.5 Hydrocarbon Dew Point Control......Page 263
7.5.4 N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone......Page 264
23.6 The Impact of Living with Information Technology......Page 265
7.8 Solid Bed Adsorption Process......Page 269
7.9 Membrane......Page 270
7.9.2 Membrane Process Disadvantages......Page 271
7.9.4 Membrane Processes......Page 272
7.9.5 Membrane Pretreatment System......Page 274
7.11 Microbiological Treatment Processes......Page 275
7.12 Selecting the Gas Treating Process......Page 276
References......Page 277
14.1 Introduction......Page 437
Normal and Standard Gas Conditions......Page 367
17.3.1 Roles and Responsibilities......Page 517
8.3.1 Modified Claus Process......Page 281
9.3.6.1.1 High Feed Gas Temperature......Page 282
21.2.2.7.3 Deethanizer......Page 284
8.3.1.2.1 Feed Preheating......Page 285
18.2.2.5.8 Leaching......Page 286
8.3.3 Small- and Medium-Scale Processes......Page 289
19.7.1.1 Thermodynamic Model Selection......Page 593
8.3.3.2 Redox Process......Page 290
18.8.1.2 Axial Flow Fans......Page 291
12.4 Cryogenic Nitrogen Rejection......Page 292
15.5.3 Station Control......Page 480
8.4.1.1 Hydrogenation Section......Page 293
21.2.3.1 Model Fidelity and Measurement Errors......Page 294
22.3.3 Electric Energy......Page 295
8.4.4.1 Integration with AGRU for Zero Emissions......Page 296
8.5 Sulfur Degassing......Page 297
22.4.2 Pros and Cons of the Method......Page 298
8.6.1 Molten Sulfur Handling System......Page 300
8.6.3 Conveying Formed Sulfur......Page 301
8.7.1 Piping......Page 302
17.4.1 Types of Maintenance......Page 303
8.8.1 Proper Air Ratio......Page 304
8.8.2 Reactor Activity......Page 305
8.8.7 Catalyst Support Screens......Page 306
8.9 Selecting the Sulfur Recovery Process......Page 307
8.10.1 Process Description......Page 309
8.10.2.2 Pipeline......Page 310
8.10.2.3 Injection......Page 311
References......Page 312
17.2 Commissioning and Start-Up......Page 315
17.2.1 Mechanical Completion and Precommissioning......Page 318
9.3.3 Glycol Injection Process......Page 322
9.3.5.1 Glycol Circulate Rate......Page 323
9.3.6 Operational Problems......Page 325
18.2.2.5.2 Cycles of Concentration......Page 326
9.4.1 Adsorption Capacity......Page 328
9.4.2.1 Molecular Sieves......Page 329
9.4.2.3 Activated Alumina......Page 332
9.4.3.1 Adsorption Principle......Page 333
9.4.3.2 Solid Bed Design Considerations......Page 334
9.4.4 Operation of Solid-Bed Dehydrator......Page 336
9.4.4.1 3+1 Mode of Operation......Page 337
9.4.4.1.2 Depressurization Step......Page 338
9.4.4.1.4 Cooling Step......Page 339
9.4.4.3 Other Modes of Operation......Page 340
22.5.10.5 Development of Energy-Efficient Processes for NGL Recovery......Page 720
17.3.7 Fatigue Mitigation......Page 523
9.4.5.3 Pressure Drop......Page 341
9.4.5.8 Insulation......Page 342
20.6.5.8 Reciprocating Pumps......Page 632
20.7.2.3 Acid Gas Treating Systems......Page 343
9.4.6.5 Corrosion Products......Page 344
9.4.6.8 Bed Refluxing......Page 345
9.4.6.11 Bottom Support......Page 346
9.4.6.16 Molecular Sieve Handling Safety......Page 347
9.6 Gas Dehydration Process Selection......Page 348
9.7.3 Process Options......Page 351
19.9.1 Design of the Safety System of an LNG Regasification Plant......Page 608
10.4 Mercury Distribution in Gas Processing Plants......Page 359
10.5.2 Nonregenerative Mercury Sorbents......Page 360
22.2.3 Closed Systems......Page 361
24.4.4 Project Execution Planning......Page 771
10.7 Disposal of Mercury-Contaminated Waste......Page 364
References......Page 365
22.2.1 First and Second Principles of Thermodynamics......Page 368
20.3.2 Distributed Control Systems......Page 371
11.3.4 Turboexpander NGL Recovery Processes......Page 375
16.3.2.1 Turbine Meters......Page 378
11.3.5 Lean Oil Absorption......Page 379
18.6.5 Loads......Page 483
11.3.6.1 Dual Column Reflux Process......Page 381
24.4.1.2 Project Team Roles and Responsibilities......Page 650
11.3.6.3 Ortloff SCORE......Page 383
11.3.6.5 Fluor TCHAP......Page 384
22.5.9.1 Application of the Exergy Analysis for the Optimal Design of Cascade Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles......Page 385
11.3.7 Other Hydrocarbons Removal Processes......Page 386
11.3.7.2 Membrane Separation......Page 387
11.5 NGL Recovery Technology Development......Page 389
11.9.1.1 Caustic Processes......Page 393
11.9.1.2 Molecular Sieve Technology......Page 395
11.9.1.3 Amine Processes......Page 396
11.9.2 Dehydration......Page 397
References......Page 398
24 . Gas Plant Project Management......Page 400
16.1 Introduction......Page 492
12.3 Nitrogen Rejection Integration with NGL Recovery......Page 401
21.2.3 Plant Model Integration......Page 659
12.4.2 Modified Single-Column Design......Page 404
21.4.2 Plant Operation......Page 662
16.3.5 Meter Proving......Page 407
12.4.5 Process Selection......Page 408
12.6 Nitrogen Rejection Unit Operating Problems......Page 410
12.7 Helium Recovery......Page 411
12.7.1 Helium Recovery Process Configuration for High CO2 Lean Gas......Page 412
12.7.2 Helium RECOVERY Unit......Page 413
13.1 Introduction......Page 414
13.3 Shale Gas Versus Conventional Gas......Page 416
13.5.1 Hydrocarbon Dewpointing......Page 419
13.5.2 Relative Cost of NGL Recovery Levels......Page 420
13.5.3 Cryogenic Turboexpander Plants......Page 421
13.6 Unconventional NGL Recovery Process......Page 422
24.5.1 Project Timeline......Page 774
13.6.2 High Ethane Recovery Conversion......Page 423
20.4.6 Vibration......Page 625
13.8 Nitrogen- and Helium-Rich Gas......Page 428
13.8.2 Nitrogen-Rejection and Helium Gas–Recovery Process......Page 429
13.9 Offshore Carbon Dioxide Removal Design Considerations......Page 432
18.8.1 Air Cooling......Page 433
13.9.2 Acid Gas Fractionation with Methanol System......Page 435
References......Page 615
14.2 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 438
14.3 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 439
14.4 Comparison Between Compressors......Page 441
14.6 Thermodynamics of Gas Compression......Page 443
14.6.1 Basic Relations......Page 444
14.6.2 Isentropic Model......Page 445
14.6.3 Polytropic Model......Page 447
14.6.4 Real Gas Behavior......Page 448
14.7 Compression Ratio......Page 449
14.8.1 Determining Number of Compression Stages......Page 451
14.8.2 Compression Power Calculation......Page 452
14.9.1 Reciprocating Compressors......Page 454
14.9.2 Centrifugal Compressors......Page 455
18.10 Storage Facilities......Page 459
14.11 Example for Operating a Compressor in a Pipeline System......Page 460
References......Page 464
15.2 Gas Flow Fundamentals......Page 466
15.2.1 General Flow Equation......Page 467
23.4.3 Capability to Perform......Page 470
15.3 Predicting Gas Temperature Profile......Page 472
16.4 Flow meter Management......Page 474
E......Page 475
15.5.1.2 Compressors......Page 477
19.7.1.2 Modeling the TEG Dehydration System......Page 479
17.3.2 Process Safety Management......Page 481
21.4.5.1 Implementation and Usage of the Model......Page 667
15.6 Reduction and Metering Stations......Page 482
22.3.2.2 Pumps......Page 590
15.7.2 Compressor Station Spacing......Page 484
15.8 Pipeline Operations......Page 488
References......Page 490
16.2.1 Advantages of Mass-Based Energy Flow......Page 493
22.3 The Different Energy Contributions......Page 495
16.3.2.2 Mass Flow Meters......Page 499
17.3.8.4 Detailed Design......Page 503
16.3.2.5 Ultrasonic Meters......Page 504
16.3.4 Flow meter Performance......Page 505
16.5.1 Gas Chromatography......Page 508
16.6 Wobbe Index......Page 509
G......Page 803
References......Page 510
17.2.2 Control Systems Testing......Page 513
17.2.5 Performance Testing......Page 516
17.3.3 Hazard and Operability Study......Page 519
17.3.4 Layer of Protection Analysis......Page 520
17.3.6 Management of Change......Page 522
18.7.2 Steam Circuit......Page 563
20.3.2.1 Remote Control Panel......Page 525
17.3.8.8 Monitoring and Assessment......Page 526
17.3.9 Training......Page 527
17.3.10 Shift Change......Page 528
24.4 The Project Management Process......Page 766
17.4.1.1 Breakdown Maintenance......Page 529
17.4.1.6 Proactive “Life Extension” Maintenance......Page 530
21.4.5.6 Use for Planners......Page 669
17.4.3 Reliability Centered Maintenance......Page 531
20.5 Analyzers......Page 532
17.5.1.2 Identify and Locate the Cause of the Trouble......Page 533
17.5.2 Troubleshooting Documentation......Page 534
19.9.2 Online Dynamic Model of a Trunk Pipeline......Page 610
17.6 Turnarounds......Page 536
References......Page 537
18 . Utility and Offsite Systems in Gas Processing Plants......Page 539
B......Page 795
21.2.1 Physical Properties......Page 648
18.2.2 Cooling Towers......Page 541
18.2.2.2 Counterflow Cooling Towers......Page 543
21.2.2.3 Fractionators......Page 544
23.4.2.4 Performance Messages......Page 747
18.2.2.5.5 Plume......Page 545
18.2.2.5.13 Fans......Page 546
19.8.2.3.3 Piping Equipment......Page 605
18.2.2.6 Cooling Tower Efficiency Calculations......Page 547
18.6.1 Electrical System Design......Page 556
18.6.2 Power Factor Correction......Page 557
18.6.3 Harmonics Management......Page 558
24.5.2 Risk Management......Page 559
18.6.6 Power Supply and Switchgear......Page 560
18.7 Process Heating......Page 561
18.7.1 Boilers......Page 562
H......Page 641
18.8.1.1 Tube Bundles......Page 565
18.8.1.4 Mechanical Equipment......Page 567
22.5.11.1 Condensate Stabilization......Page 723
18.8.1.9 Fan Selection—Horsepower Requirements......Page 570
20.6.5.5 NGL Fractionation......Page 631
18.8.1.10.1 Varying Air Flow......Page 571
18.9 Flare Systems......Page 572
18.9.1 Flare Gas Recovery Systems......Page 573
18.11 Wastewater Treatment......Page 576
18.12 Drains......Page 577
18.15 Fire and Gas System......Page 578
References......Page 579
20.1 Introduction......Page 617
19.3 Steady-State Versus Dynamic Models......Page 583
19.4.2 Lumped Parameter Versus Distributed Models......Page 585
19.5 Process Simulation Approaches......Page 586
19.5.1 Modular Approach for Steady-State Models......Page 587
23.10.1 Tools for Optimization......Page 756
19.5.6 Hybrid Approach for Dynamic Models......Page 588
19.6.1.1 Component Lists......Page 589
19.6.2.2 Solution Order......Page 591
19.7.2 Sour Gas Sweetening With Amines......Page 594
19.7.3 Turboexpander NGL Recovery......Page 595
24.5.2.7 Project Risk Management in Interaction With Other Management Processes......Page 596
19.7.3.4 NGL Fractionation Train......Page 598
19.7.4.1 Thermodynamic Model Selection......Page 599
19.8.1.1.1 Controllability and Operability......Page 600
19.8.1.1.5 Operator Training......Page 601
19.8.1.2.3 Incident Analysis......Page 602
19.8.1.2.6 Advanced Process Control......Page 603
19.8.2.2 Model Speed......Page 604
19.8.2.3.6 Control Systems......Page 606
19.8.3.4 Gas Dehydration......Page 607
20.7.7.2 Determining the Benefits......Page 613
L......Page 807
20.3.1 Programmable Logic Controllers......Page 618
20.3.2.3 Central Control......Page 619
20.4.1.5 Vortex Shedding......Page 621
20.4.4 Liquid Level......Page 624
20.6.1 Gas Gathering......Page 627
20.6.4.1 Absorption......Page 629
20.7.2.2 Gas Compressors......Page 634
22.5.9 Exergy Analysis for the Optimal Design of Refrigeration Cycles......Page 635
20.7.5 Multivariable Predictive Control......Page 636
20.7.6 Optimization......Page 638
20.7.7.1 Automation Upgrade Master Plans......Page 639
20.7.7.2.2 Statistical Analysis......Page 640
References......Page 644
21.2 Real-Time Optimization......Page 645
21.2.2.7 Distillation Calculations......Page 653
21.2.2.7.8 Demethanizer Feed Chilling Models......Page 656
21.2.2.9 Turbines......Page 657
21.3 Real-Time Optimization Project Considerations......Page 660
21.4 Example of Real-Time Optimization......Page 661
21.4.3 Production Objectives......Page 664
21.4.4 Project Drivers......Page 665
21.4.5.2 Modeling and Optimization Strategy......Page 668
References......Page 670
23.1 Introduction......Page 742
22.2.2 Energy Balance......Page 676
22.2.4 Open Systems......Page 677
22.3.1 Pinch Technology......Page 679
22.3.2.1 Compressors......Page 684
22.4 The Net Equivalent Methane Approach: The Actual Energy Performances in Natural Gas Processing Plants......Page 685
22.4.1 Basic Assumptions......Page 686
23.4.2.3 Dynamic Performance Measures......Page 687
22.4.1.2 Cooling Duty Estimation......Page 688
22.5.1 Exergy Concept and Exergy Balances......Page 689
22.5.1.1 Closed Systems......Page 692
22.5.1.2 Open Systems......Page 693
22.5.2 Exergy Associated to Mechanical Work......Page 694
22.5.4 Exergy Associated to Mass Flows......Page 695
22.5.8 The Net Equivalent Methane Approach for the Comparison of Low-Temperature Purification Processes With Amine Scrubbing......Page 700
22.5.10.1 Inefficiencies in NGL Recovery Processes......Page 713
22.5.10.2 Lean Feed Conditions......Page 715
22.5.10.4 Overall Comparison......Page 719
22.5.12.1 Flexibility and Operability Analysis of an HEN-Integrated Natural Gas Expander Plant......Page 726
22.5.12.2 Optimizing Ethane Recovery in Turboexpander Processes......Page 733
22.5.13 Retrofit of Existing Gas Processing Plants......Page 735
22.5.13.1 A Novel NGL Recovery Process Based on Self-Heat Recuperation......Page 737
References......Page 739
23.2 The Performance Strategy of the Integrated Gas Plant......Page 743
23.3 Strategies for Organizational Behavior and Information......Page 744
23.4.1 Information Quality......Page 745
23.4.2.2 Prediction Trends......Page 746
23.4.4 Organizational Hierarchy of Needs......Page 750
23.5 The Successful Information Strategy......Page 751
23.7 Vision of the Modern Plant Operation......Page 753
23.8 Operations Strategy......Page 754
23.10 Optimization......Page 755
23.10.2 Optimization Alternatives......Page 757
23.11 Industrial Relevance......Page 758
23.13 Scientific Approach......Page 759
23.14 Other Miscellaneous Initiatives......Page 760
23.15 Conclusion......Page 761
References......Page 763
24.2 Project Management Overview......Page 764
24.3 Industry Perspective......Page 765
24.4.2 Contracting Strategy......Page 768
24.4.3 Conceptual Estimates and Schedules......Page 769
24.4.3.1 HAZOP Analysis......Page 770
24.4.6 The Responsibility Matrix......Page 772
24.5.2.2 Risk Response Planning......Page 777
24.5.2.5 Quantitative Project Risk Management Assessment......Page 779
24.5.2.6 Risk Process Modeling......Page 780
24.6 Quality Assurance......Page 782
24.8 Operate and Evaluate......Page 784
24.10 Conclusion......Page 785
References......Page 786
Physical Properties of Fluids......Page 789
C......Page 796
F......Page 802
I......Page 806
M......Page 808
N......Page 810
P......Page 812
R......Page 815
S......Page 816
T......Page 819
V......Page 821
Z......Page 822
Back Cover......Page 824