Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy: Scientific Foundations, Educational Practices, and Culinary Applications

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
About the Editors
List of Contributors
Foreword
Introduction to Molecular Gastronomy and Its Applications
	Clarification of What Molecular Gastronomy Is
	Science and Cooking
	Applications in Schools, Colleges and Universities
	Applications to the Culinary Arts
Part I Scientific Foundations
	Acids in Foods and Perception of Sourness
		Introduction
		Influence of Food Matrix Composition on Sourness
		Mechanisms Leading to Sour Perception
			The Acid Receptor
			The Role of Saliva in Sourness Perception
		Interactions of Sourness Perception with Other Perceptions
		Acceptability of Sourness
		Conclusion
		References
	Anthocyanins in Food
		Colour Versatility of Anthocyanins
		Colour Stabilization Through Interactions
		Anthocyanin Reactions
		Colour Changes Induced by Anthocyanin Reactions
		Pigment Diffusion and Changes During Cooking
		References
	Alcoholic Beverages: Production, Trends, Innovations
		Introduction
		Beer
			Production Method and Styles
			Home Brewing
			Craft Beer
			More Trends and Innovations
		Wine
			Production Method and Styles
			Trends and Innovations
		Distilled Drinks
			Principal Production Method and Styles
			Trends and Innovations
		Category Blurring
		References
	Ash in the Kitchen
		History
		Preparation Method of Leek Ash
		Characterization of Leek Ash
		“Labmade” Cheese
		Meat Maturation
		Recipe for Ash-Ripened Danish Duck (by Andreas Rieger)
			Ash-Ripened Danish Duck (144 Portions)
			Duck Cooking (Results in 8 Portions Per Double Breast/2–3 Portions Per Leg)
			Chest
			Haunch
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Baking: Laminated Bakery Products
		From Basic Ingredients to a Sophisticated Pastry
		Ingredient Functionality for Pastry Lift
			Pre-dough
			Roll-in Fat
		Conclusion
		References
	Baking: Chemical Leaveners
		References
	Baking: Injera – the Multi-Eyed Flat Bread
		Definitions (in Amharic)
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Baking: Viennoiserie – Laminated Pastry Production
		A Brief History of the Croissant From the 17th Century
		Viennoiserie: A Modern Twist
		Production of Laminated Pastry
			Dough Stage
			Method
			Lamination Stage
			Dough Stage
			Lamination Sequencing 3 4 3
		References
	Baking: How Does Starch Gelatinization Influence Texture?
		Starch and Starch Granules
		Starch Gelatinization
		Degree of Gelatinization
		Gelatinization and Texture: Example of a Protein Gel Modified by Starch
		References
	Baking: Sourdough Bread
		A Mixture With Many Names
		Protecting the Heritage of Sourdough
		Artisan Over Convenience
		Sourdough Fermentation – It Is All About the Microbes
			Lactic Acid Bacteria
			Yeasts
			Sourdough Fermentation Process
			Traditional Sourdough Fermentation with a Touch of Back-Slopping
		Stability of the Ecosystem
		Bringing the Dough Together
		References
	Barbecue: The Chemistry Behind Cooking on a Barbecue
		Composition of Wood, Charcoal and Meat
		Flavour From the Burning Wood
		Flavour From the Cooked Food
		Harmful Substances Created through Barbecuing
		Conclusion
		References
	Bioactivity and Its Measurement
		Compound Release (CR)
		In Situ Quantitative Nmr
		Classification of Bioactivities
		Modelling Saccharides
		References
	Browning: The Glycation and Maillard Reactions – Major Non-Enzymatic Browning Reactions in Food
		The Basic Chemical Pathways of the Maillard Reaction
			Initial Phase
			Propagation Phase
			Termination Phase
		Yield of Different Maillard Reaction Products
		What Is Behind the Browning of Butter?
		Acrylamide, the Dark Side of Glycation
		Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
		References
	Canning: Appert and Food Canning
		Appertization: The Art of Preserving Animal and Vegetal Substances
		The Botulinum Cook
		Thermobacteriology: Modelling the Thermal Processing of Foods
		References
	Capillarity in Action
		Diffusion Versus Capillarity
		Sometimes, There Is No Entrance; Sometimes, There Is One
		The Mathematics Behind the Phenomenon
		The Example of “Shitao”
		References
	Champagne Tasting From a Scientific Perspective
		Champagne Cork Popping Revisited
		What Is the Best Way to Pour Champagne?
		How Many Bubbles in Your Glass of Bubbly?
		Flute Versus Coupe: And the Winner Is …
		Flow Patterns in Champagne Glasses Increase the Perception of Aromas
		Unravelling Two-Dimensional Vortices at the Champagne Surface
		Bursting Bubbles Provide An Aromatic Boost to Champagne
		References
	Chantillys: The Cousins of Whipped Cream
		Chocolate Chantilly
		Other Chantillys
		References
	Cheese: Hot Culinary Uses of Cheese
		Cheese
		Using the Emulsifying Property of Cheeses: The Fondue
			Heated Cheese
			Physico-Chemical Mechanisms Within the Fondue
			Practical Considerations
		Non-Enzymatic Browning of Cheeses: the Gratin
			Physico-Chemical Mechanisms of Cheese Browning
			Practical Considerations
		The Spreadability of Cheeses
			Physico-Chemical Mechanisms of Cheese Spreading
			Practical Considerations
		Cheese Stretching: Pizzas and “Aligot”
			Physico-Chemical Mechanisms of Stretching
			Practical Considerations: Aligot
		Conclusions
		References
	Chocolate: Chocolates From Around the World, Simple Physics, complex Flavour
		Hierarchy of Chocolate Production
		The Science Behind Chocolate
		The Forced, Non- Equilibrium Phase β (V)
		Thermodynamics of Chocolate
		Differential Scanning Calorimetry of Chocolate
		Effect of Cocoa Percentage On Chocolate
		Effect of Sugar Replacers On Thermal Properties of Chocolate
		Salmiakki or “Salty Liquorice Chocolates”
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Chocolate: Oral Processing of Chocolate – Successive Interplay of Sensory and Physicochemical Parameters
		Fatty Phase
		Taste: Bitter-Sweet
		Phenols: Bitterness, Astringency and Structure Formation
		Colloidal Precipitation in the Mouth
		Conclusions
		References
	Coffee Preparation – From Roasted Beans to Beverage
		Grinding
			Influence of Particle Size
			Different Grinding Methods
			Parameters Influencing the Grinding Process
		Extraction and Characteristics of the Resulting Beverage
			Chemical Composition of the Extract
		Impact of the Coffee Preparation Method
			Impact of the Brewing Method
			Impact of Coffee/water Ratio
		Organoleptic Properties of the Resulting Beverage
		Conclusions
		References
	Colour: Natural Pigments in Foods and Their Technical Uses
		Anthocyanins
		Betalains
		Carotenes and Carotenoids
		Chlorophylls and their Derivatives
		Neutralisation of Acids
		High-Temperature Short-Time Processing
		Enzymatic Conversion of Chlorophylls to Chlorophyllides
		Transformation of Chlorophylls Into More Stable Metallo-Complexes
		Conclusions
		References
	Cooking
		A Table for Innovation
		In More Depth: Some Chemistry of Cooking
		References
	Cooking: Culinary Precisions and Robustness of Recipes
		Testing Culinary Precisions
		Reasons for Culinary Precisions: The Robustness Assumption
		Comparative Molecular Gastronomy
		References
	Cryogenics in the Kitchen
		A Short History of How Cryogens Came into Restaurants
		How Do Cryogens Work?
		Why Are Cryogens Useful in Food Preparation?
		Industrial Use of Cryogens in Food processing
			Freezing Fresh Foods
			Producing Powders and Ground Spices
			Flavour Extraction in Wine and Oil Production (Cryomaceration)
			Ice Cream
		Use of Cryogens in Restaurants
			Cryo-Grinding (Cryo-Powders)
			Cryo-Grating
			Cryo-Slicing
			Cryo-Shattering
			Cryo-Searing
			Cryo-Shaping
			Cryo-Carbonation
			Cryo-Peeling
			Cryo-Freeze Drying
		On Show – in the Dining Room
			Cryo-Poaching
			Liquid Nitrogen Ice Creams
			Fogging Odours
			Liquid Nitrogen Cocktails
		Safely Storing, Handling and Using Cryogens
			Training
			Equipment
			Risk Assessment
		References
	Dairy: Milk Gels – a Gastrophysics View
		Introduction
		Native Milk, a Simplified Picture
		Yogurt and Its Production
		Yogurt From Raw and Boiled Milk
		Rheology Basics
		Rheological Measurements of Yogurts
		Colostrum, a Brief Insight
		Creaming of Colostrum
		Gel Formation From Colostrum
		Conclusions
		References
	Dairy: Culinary Uses of Milk, Butter and Ice Cream
		The Complexity of Milk
		The Production of Butter
		The Texture of Butter
		The Science of Ice Cream
		Structural Considerations for Butter and Ice Cream
		Conclusion
		References
	Dairy: Ginger Milk Curd
		Fool-Proof Ginger Milk Curd
		Mechanism of Gelling
		Ideas for Further Experimentation
		References
	Dehydration
		Introduction
		Moisture in Foods
		Moisture in Air
		Hygroscopicity of Foods
		The Engineering Approach
		Methods for Dehydrating Foods
		Dried Products
		References
	Dispersed System Formalism
		A Simple Case for Training: How to Describe a Raw Egg
		The Objects for the Formal Description
		Mixing Orders of Magnitude for An Overall Description
		Use of Dsf for Scientific Explorations and for Innovation
		Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	Distillation: The Behaviour of Volatile Compounds during Distillation of Hydro-Alcoholic Solutions and during ...
		Characterization of Volatility
			Partial Pressures for the Liquid–vapour Equilibrium
		Absolute and Relative Volatility
		Distillation of a Hydro-Alcoholic Solution
		Distillation of Volatile Compounds in a Hydro-Alcoholic Solution
		Behaviour of Volatile Compounds in Boiling Water
		Conclusion
		References
	Eggs: Let Us Have an Egg
		A Code for Innovation
		Some Examples
		Conclusion
		References
	Emulsions: Emulsified Systems in Food
		Principles Behind Emulsions and Foams
		Types of Emulsifiers in Food Emulsions and Foams
		Examples of Emulsified Systems in Food
			Milk
			“Plant-Based Emulsions” (Non-Dairy)
			Butter and Margarine
			Spreads, Dips, Dressings and Sauces
			Sausages
			Anise-Flavoured Liquors and Spirits (Microemulsions)
			Beverages
		Foams in Food Systems
			Beer Foams
		Ice Creams
			Pacojet Ice Cream
		Conclusion
		References
	Emulsions and Foams: Ostwald Ripening and Disproportionation in Practice
		Emulsions and Foams
		Let Us Remember That Metastable Systems are Not Thermodynamically Stable
			Destabilization Mechanisms
			Changes in Emulsions
			Changes in Foams
		How Does This Apply?
			Application to Emulsions
			Application to Foams
		Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	Emulsions: Lecithin
		Lecithin
		Composition of Lecithin
			Phospholipids
			Glycolipids
			Triglycerides
			Other Components
		Applications of Lecithin
			Emulsions – Types
			Labelling of Lecithin
		References
	Emulsions: Emulsions and Surfactants in the Kitchen
		Oil Does Not Mix With Water; Surface Tension
		Surfactants
		HLB Values
		Making Colloidal Systems
		Why Are Micelles Depicted As Spherical?
		Micellar Concentration
		Surfactants in Emulsions
		Conclusions
		References
	Essential Oils
		The Odour of Plants Is a Result of Their Metabolism
		How to Capture Smell? A Chronological Point of View
		From the Point of View of the Parameters Linked to/Depending Upon the Nature of Molecules: Partition Coefficients
		From the Point of View of the Manufacturing Processes
		Primary Extracts: Volatile Solvent Extraction and Essential Oils
		Essential Oil Production Plants
		Tinctures, Soluble Oils, Alcoholates
		Secondary (Re-Processed) Extracts
		Industrial Constraints
		Expected Yields As a Function of Time and Energy
		References
	Essential Oils: How to Safely Use Essential Oils
		Brief History of Safety Concerns
		North American Safety Approach by Congeneric Groups
		European Safety Approach by Substances With a Particular Concern
		Applications
		Conclusion
		References
	Evaporation
		Ordering Systems
		Food Liquids: O, S
			Hydrophobic Solutions: O
			Aqueous Solutions
			Aqueous Solutions at Room Temperatures or in the Mouth
			Aqueous Solutions Being Heated
				Stock and Reductions
				Steam Extraction
		More Complex Systems Having a Continuous Liquid Phase
			Water Activity
			Evaporation From Emulsions
			Flavour Release for More Complex Systems
			Crust Formation
			Water Vaporization and Frying
		Conclusion
		References
	Expansion
		Early Experiments
		Testing Culinary Precisions
		Other Expansions of This Kind
		One by One?
		References
	Fats and Oils: Physicochemical Properties of Edible Oils and Fats
		How Are Dietary Lipids Designed to Achieve a Certain Functionality?
			Hydrogenation
			Fractionation
			Interesterification
		References
	Fats and Oils: From Fat Droplets in Plant Seeds to Novel Foods
		Oleosomes Meet the Culinary World: Spreads and Sauces
			Fat Mayonnaise-Type Spread
			Mustard Spread
			Vinaigrette
			Béchamel Sauce
			Liquid Creamers
		References
	Fats and Oils: Oxidation of Dietary Lipids
		The Autoxidation Mechanism
		Final Oxidation Products
		How to Avoid Or Limit Oxidation
		Conclusion
		References
	Fats and Oils: Extra Virgin Olive Oil in Cooking – Molecular Keys for Traditional and Modern Mediterranean Gastronomy
		What Is Evoo?
		EVOO in ‘mediterranean Molecular Cuisine’
		EVOO in Fish Canning and Cooking
		Tomato–EVOO Interactions
		Marinating Meat in Evoo Before Roasting
		Cooking in Evoo (Deep-Frying,-Pan-Frying, Sautéing, Sofrito)
		EVOO and Milk Proteins
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Fermentation: Kimchi
		References
	Fermentation: Fermenting Flavours With Yeast
		Yeast
		Fermentation
		Flavour and Aroma Properties of Yeast
		Yeast in the Food and Beverage Industry
		References
	Fermentation: A Short Scientific and Culinary Overview of Kefir
		Introduction
		Origin, Production and Consumption
		Scientific Investigations
		Culinary Uses
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Filtration Membranes for Food Processing and Fractionation
		Introduction
		The Basics of Filtration Membranes
			From Frontal to Tangential Filtration
			Driving Force, Permeate Flux and Retention
			Intrinsic Limits and Challenges: Concentration Polarization and Fouling
		Applications
			Overview of the Interest in Filtration Membranes in Food Processing
			Purification
			Concentration/Extraction
			Integrated Separation Processes
			Wastewater Treatment and Valuation
		Conclusion
		References
	Food Matrices and the Matrix Effect in the Kitchen
		Introduction
		What Is a Food Matrix?
		Classifying Food Matrices by the Dispersed System Formalism
			Solid and Liquid Matrices (S)
			Emulsions (L1/L2) and Suspension (S/L) Matrices
			Gel Matrices (X/D3(S), XxD3(S))
			Porous Matrices
			More Complex Matrices
		FM and Cooking
			Texture
			Flavour Release
			Nutrition
			Food Analysis
		Conclusions
		References
	Food Pairing: Is It Really About Science?
		Refutation of the Food Pairing Theory: A Critical Look at the Literature
		Conclusion
		References
	Freeze-Drying
		The Principle of Freeze-Drying
			Freeze-Drying Equipment
			Sublimation and Condensation in freeze-Drying
		Freezing of Water in Foods
			Raoult’s Law
			Ice Formation and Melting
		Freeze-Drying of Food Materials
			Heat and Mass Transfer
			Freeze-Drying Temperature
		Challenges
			Packaging
			Manufacturing Costs
		Freeze-Dried Foods
			Freeze-Dried Coffee
			Freeze-Dried Berries, Fruits and Vegetables
			Herbs and Spices
			Meat and Seafood
			Ready Meals
			Novelties
		Conclusions
		References
	Foams: Pickering Edible Oil Foam – Toward New Food Products
		Introduction
		Formation and Properties of Pickering Foams
			Foam Stabilization by Particles
			Instability Mechanisms in Pickering Foams
			Key Differences Between Aqueous Pickering Foams and Pickering Edible Oil Foams
		Formation and Properties of Pickering Edible Oil Foams
			Properties and Structure of the Crystalline Particles
			Strategy and Process to Produce Edible Oil Foams
			Foamability and Oil Foam Stability
			Structure and Rheological Properties of Edible Oil Foams
		Conclusion
		References
	Frying
		Introduction
		Oil Uptake
		Chemical, Physical and Microstructural Changes
		Conclusions
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Gastrophysics: A New Scientific Approach to Eating
		Introduction
		Molecular Gastronomy
		Neurogastronomy
		Gastrophysics
		Conclusions
		References
	Gels
		Using the Dispersed System Formalism for Describing Gels
		Simple Gels As Described Using Dsf Operators
		More Complex Gels
		More Than Two Phases: Dynagels/statgels
		References
	Heat Transfer in Culinary Sciences
		Introduction
		Heat Transfer Modes
		Internal Energy Variation
		Heat Balance Equations
		Basic Applications
			Refrigerating a Jelly
			Cooking Potatoes in Boiling Water
		Introduction to Coupled Phenomena
			Baking Bread
			Freezing Ice Cream
		References
	Hydrocolloid Usages As Gelling and Emulsifying Agents for Culinary and Industrial Applications
		Introduction
		Use of Hydrocolloids As Gelling Agents
			Agar-Agar
				Chemical Composition/Structure
				The Gelation of Agar-Agar
				External Effectors and Synergies
				Applications of Agar-Agar
			Carrageenans (Iota and Kappa)
				Chemical Composition/structure
				The Gelation of Carrageenans
				External Effectors and Synergies
				Applications of Carrageenan Gels
			Sodium Alginate
				Chemical Composition/structure
				Alginate Solutions
				The Gelation of Alginate
				External Effectors and Synergies
					Acidity
					Calcium
					Salt
				Applications of Alginate
			Gellan Gum
				Chemical Composition and Structure
				Hydration of Gellan Gum
				The Gelation of Gellan Gum
					Low Acyl
					High Acyl
				Gelling Mechanism
				External Effectors and Synergies
				Properties of Gellan Gum Gels
				Gellan Gum Fluid Gels
				Applications of Gellan Gums
		Hydrocolloids as Emulsifiers
			Exudate Gums
			Gum Arabic
				Chemical Composition/Structure
				Emulsifying Properties
			Gum Ghatti
				Chemical Composition/Structure
				Emulsifying Properties
			Other Polysaccharide Hydrocolloids
				(Modified) Starch
					Chemical Composition/structure
					Emulsifying Properties
				Cellulose Derivatives
					Chemical Composition/structure
					Emulsifying Properties
				Pectins
					Chemical Composition/structure
					Emulsifying Properties
		Protein Hydrocolloids and Their Interaction With Polysaccharides
			Physico-Chemical Parameters of Interaction
				Functional Properties
		References
	Imaging Foodstuffs and Products of Culinary Transformations
		Imaging of Emulsions: Mayonnaise, Butter, and Whipped Cream
		Imaging of Cheese
		Imaging of Dried Vegetables: Crunchy Japanese Tsukemono
		Imaging Squid
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Meat: Meat Tenderness and the Impact of Cooking
		Muscle Structure and Transformation of Muscle Into Meat During Ageing
		Evolution of Meat Structure During Cooking
		Is It Possible to Totally Control the Tenderness of Cooked Meat?
		Conclusion
		References
	Meat: Heat Transfer in Meat
		Cooking
		Thawing and Freezing
		Browning
		References
	Meat: Reduction of Nitrate and Nitrite Salts in Meat Products – What Are the Consequences and Possible Solutions?
		Introduction
		Do Nitrate-Rich Plant Extracts Offer a Viable Alternative?
		Role of Nitrates/Nitrites in Colour
			Colour Formation
			Alternatives
				Addition of Natural Colourants
				Addition of Bacteria
		Role of Nitrates/Nitrites in Flavour
			Flavour Development, Antioxidant Role
			Alternatives to Nitrates and Nitrites
		Role of Nitrates/Nitrites in Microbiological qualities
			Growth, Survival and Activity of Starters
			Growth and Survival of Spoilage Bacteria
			Inhibition of Pathogenic Bacteria
				Clostridium Botulinum
				Salmonella
				Listeria
			Alternatives
				Plant Extracts
				Lactic Acid Bacteria
		Conclusion
		References
	Microwave Heating and Modern Cuisine
		Introduction
		Principle of Operation of a Microwave Oven
		Microwave Heating of Food
		References
	Mineral Ions and Cooking
		Involvement of Mineral Ions in Food in Taste Perception and Appreciation
			Dairy Products
			Meat Products
			Tomatoes
			Drinking Water
		Mineral Ions May Affect the Colour of Food
			Crude Food Products
			During Cooking
		Mineral Ions Affect the Texture and Structure of Food
			Vegetables
			Emulsions
		Conclusion
		References
	Osmosis in the Kitchen
		Osmosis and Semipermeable Membranes
		Where Are These Semipermeable Membranes?
		Other Culinary Processes With Osmosis
		Mechanisms
		Applications
		Conclusion
		References
	Pasta: Durum Wheat Proteins – a Key Macronutrient for Pasta Qualities
		Pasta Quality Is Driven by Both Raw Material and Process
		Durum Wheat Components
		Pasta-Making Process
		Pasta Qualities
		Gluten Proteins Control Pasta Qualities
			Protein Contribution to Quality Throughout pasta-Making Process
			Protein and Pasta Qualities
		Conclusion
		References
	Pasteurization in the Kitchen
		Introduction
		Pasteurization Processes Used in the food Industry
			Low-Temperature, Short-Time Pasteurization
			High-Temperature, Short-Time Pasteurization
			Steam Pasteurization
			Sous-Vide Cooking
		Pathogens of Concern for Thermal Pasteurization
		Physical-Chemical Modifications of Foods During Pasteurization
			Meat
				Protein Modifications
				Lipid Modification
			Fruits and Vegetables
				Saccharide Modification During Pasteurization
				Colour and Texture
				Antioxidant Activity
				Phenolic Compounds
				Carotenoids
				Vitamins
		Novel Pasteurization Methods
		References
	Plating: The Science of Plating
		Introduction
		Assessing Orientation Preferences for the Plating of Food
		Pointing Angularity Away From the Diner
		Ascending to the Right: Preferential Orientation for Linear Elements
		Orientation Preference for the Horizontal/Vertical
		Conclusions
		References
	Proteins and Proteases
		Introduction
		Amino Acids
		Protein Structure
			Tertiary Structure
			Quaternary Structure
		Protein Denaturation
		Proteases and Proteins
			Enzymes and Cheese
			Fruit Enzymes
			Marinades and Meat
		Conclusions
		References
	Puddings: The Secret of the Rice Pudding
		Rice Pudding
		Reference
	Roasting
		The Particular Example of Coffee
		Some Modifications of Coffee Seeds during Roasting
		Other Seeds
		Conclusions
		References
	Salt: When Should Salt Be Added to Meat Being Grilled?
		Juice Extraction by Salt
		How Much Salt Goes Into Meat During Grilling?
		References
	Sauces
		How to Use the New Classification?
		References
	Sauces: Hollandaise Sauce
		Hollandaise Sauce History
		Mother and Daughter Sauces
		A Warm Emulsion
		Mixing of the Immiscible
		Ratios
		The Art of Mixing
		Stabilizers and Emulsifiers
		The Droplets’ Life in Solitude
		Hollandaise Ingredients
		The Problematic Butter
		Hollandaise Preparation
		Summary of Success Points for Emulsions and Warm Butter Sauces
		Hollandaise Sauce Recipe
			Base:
			White Wine and Vinegar Reduction:
			Flavorings:
		References
	Sauces and Purées: The Underside of Applesauce
		Apple Fruit: An Organized Structure From Macroscopic to Microscopic Scale
		From Apple Fruit to Applesauce: thermo-Mechanical Treatment
		Applesauce: A Soft Plant Particle Suspension
		Which Parameters Influence the Texture of Apple Puree?
			Particle Concentration and Serum Viscosity
			Particle Morphology
				Intrinsic Parameters
			Variety and Cultivars
			Maturity/Loss of Adhesion
		Thermo-Mechanical Treatment
		Link Between Perceived Texture (Sensory) and Measured Texture (Instrumental)
		Conclusions and Perspectives
		References
	Seaweeds: Phycogastronomy – the Culinary Science of Seaweeds
		Sensory Perception of Seaweeds
		Visual Appearance and Aesthetics
		Auditory Sensation
		Aroma and Odour
		Texture (Mouthfeel)
		Taste
		Umami and Dashi
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Size Reduction
		Introduction
		Cutting
		Grinding
		Emulsions and Suspensions
		Processes and Equipment
		Measuring Particle Size
		Particle Size Distributions
		References
	Smoked Foods
		Introduction
		Smoking Methods
		Odorants in Smoke
		Different Smoking Materials
		Taste
		Texture
		Health Aspects
		Applications of Smoke
		References
	Sous Vide Cooking
		Packaging
		Cooking Sous Vide
		Meat, Poultry, and Fish
			Doneness, Appearance, and Texture
		Tender Cuts
		Tough Cuts
		Storing and Reheating
		Finishing for Service
		References
	Spherification
		Introduction
		The Science Behind the Technique
		The Future
		References
	Squid: Gastrophysics of Squid – From Gastronomy to Science and Back Again
		Introduction
		The Challenge of Tough Muscular Fibres
		Texture of Squid
		Umami Taste of Squid
		Some New Squid Products of Gastronomical value
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Sugars: Soft Caramel and Sucre à la Crème – an Undergraduate Experiment about Sugar Crystallization
		Introduction
		Historical and Cultural Background
		Physical Chemistry of the Confections
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Sugars: Sugar (and Its Substitutes) in Pastries
		Sweet Taste
		Colour and Flavour Profile
		Texture Properties
		Preservation
		Experimentation
		References
	Sugars: Erythritol–sucrose Mixtures Out of Equilibrium – Exciting Thermodynamics in the Mouth
		Experimental Observation of Glass Transitions and Crystallization
		Glass Transitions
		Crystallization
		Melting
		Inspiration for the Kitchen
			Ice Blossoms
			Hot Syrup
		Conclusion
		References
	Sugars: Intramolecular Dehydration of Hexoses
		Arithmetic of Hexose Dehydration
		Inspection of Systematic Possibilities of Hexose Dehydration
		Most Commonly Observed Hexose Dehydration Products and Properties
		Conclusion
		References
	Taste and Sound
		Food-Intrinsic Sounds
		Food-Extrinsic Sounds
		Sonic Ingredients
		Technology for “sonic Seasoning”
		Crossmodal Correspondences Between Taste and Sound
		Multisensory Gastromusical Art
		Conclusion
		References
	Temporal Domination of Sensation: When Building Dishes, let’s Take Temporality Into Account
		Origin of Tds: From Intensity to Dominance
		Pairing Tds With Liking, Wanting and Satiation
		Temporal Dominance of Emotions (TDE)
		No Dominance and Dual-TDS
		Using TDS-Liking for Descriptive and Hedonic Evaluation of Food Pairing
		A Need for TDS Data Analysis Refinements
		Last But Not Least: What Is Dominance?
		References
	Texture: The Physics of Mouthfeel – Spreadable Food and Inulin Particle Gels
		Introduction
		Liver Sausages: The Role of Proteins and Fats
		Inulin: Selectively Crystallisable Molecules
		Fractal Particle Gels and “Simulated Melting”
		Conclusions
		References
	Texture: How Texture Makes Flavour
		Interplay Between Mouthfeel and Other Sensory Perceptions
			Taste → Touch
			Touch → Taste
			Temperature → Taste
			Taste → Irritation
			Irritation → Taste
			Smell → Touch
			Touch → Smell
			Smell → Temperature
			Temperature → Smell
			Smell → Irritation
			Irritation → Smell
			Touch → Temperature
			Temperature → Touch
			Touch → Astringency
			Temperature → Irritation
			Irritation → Temperature
		Texture
		Texture and Food Culture
		Texture and the Recognition of Food
		Food Complaints Often Relate to Mouthfeel
		Modifying Texture
		The Challenge in Designing Texture
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Texture: Tsukemono – the Art and Science of Preparing Crunchy Vegetables
		Preparation of Tsukemono
		Salt, Salts, and Texture
		Drying and Texture
		Flavour
		Aesthetics and Health
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Thickeners: Cellulose and Its Derivatives
		Carboxymethylcellulose
			Structure
			Solubility
			Viscosity
			Hydration
			Rheological Behaviour
			Compatibility With Other Ingredients
			Applications
		Methylcellulose and Hydoxypropylmethylcellulose
			Structure
			Dispersion/Solubility
			Rheological Behaviour
			Gelation Characteristics
			Effect of Other Ingredients On Gelling Temperatures
			Mechanism of Gelation
			Applications
		Hydroxypropylcellulose
		Ethylcellulose
		References
	3D Printing of Food
		Introduction and History
		Principle of 3D Printing of Food
		Possible End-Use Scenarios
		Food Applications
			Chocolate
			Pasta
			Confectionery
			Meals
			Specialist Nutritional Foods
			Fruit
		Culinary Applications
			Bakeries
			Restaurants and Chefs Serving 3D-Printed Foods
			3D Printing and Fine Dining
			Collaborative Projects and Applications
			Applications of Molecular Gastronomy
			Specialised Stores and Personalised Products
		Limitations
		Future Speculations
		Conclusions
		References
	Umami: The Molecular Science of Umami Synergy
		Molecular Mechanism of Umami Synergy
		Umami in the Kitchen
		Umami and Healthy Eating
		Acknowledgements
		References
Part II Educational Practices
	The Right Words for Improving Communication in Food Science, Food Technology, and Between Food Science and Technology ...
		About Flavour (and Flavor)
		About Colloids
			Emulsions and Emulsified Systems
			Gels
			Foams and Aerated Systems
		About Chemistry in General
		Should We Speak of Maillard Reactions? Probably Not
		Conclusion
		References
	Experimental Flavour Workshops
		Developments Since 2000 in Primary Schools
		Departing From “instinct”
		Protocols and Their Instructional Support
		Instructional Efforts
		An Example Activity: The Whipped Egg White Contest
			The Instructional Objectives
			Experimental Sheet
				Material for a Class of 30 Children:
			Protocol
			Instructional Commentary
		Possible Extensions
		Conclusion
		References
	Teaching Argumentation and Inquiry Through Culinary Claims
		Introduction
		Background
			Argumentation, Inquiry and Socio-Scientific Issues in Education
			Toulmin’s Argumentation Pattern (tap) and Education
		The “kitchen Stories” Project
			Practical Approach in the “kitchen Stories” Project
				First Phase (2–3 Weeks’ Duration, Part-Time)
					Step 1 – Collect and Document Culinary Claims
					Step 2 – Analyse and Construct Plausible Arguments for a Few Selected Claims
				Second Phase (2–3 Weeks’ Duration, Part-Time)
					Step 3 – Test/Experiment Analysed Claims
					Step 4 – Record and Publish Results, Documentation of cultural Heritage
			Case Example: You Can’t Make Jelly Containing Fresh Kiwi
				First Phase (3 Weeks)
				Second Phase (3 Weeks)
		Results and Discussion
			Research Questions, Observations, Preliminary Results and Discussion
			Culinary Claims, Tap and Argumentation Instruction
			Promoting Minds-On As Well As Minds-On-Hands-On Practical Work
			Epistemic Status: Source Awareness, Sourcing Skills and Critical Thinking
			Kitchen Stories and Declarative Knowledge
		Conclusions
		Outlook
		References
	Cooking and Science Workshops: The “Soft of the World”, Gelling Agents
		Gelling Agents: Agar-Agar and Gelatine
		More Gelling Agents: Sodium Alginate
		References
	Culinary Sciences for the Enhancement of the Public Understanding of Science
		Science in Formal Educational Settings
		Science Outreach on Informal Platforms
		Some Examples Using the Science of Food and Taste in Outreach Activities
		Acknowledgments
		References
	“Science and Cooking Activities” for Secondary School Students
		Objectives and Methods
		Workshop 17: How Do We Use Sugar Syrup to Create Multilayered Cocktails?
		Workshop 19: Where Does the Color of Green Beans Come From After Cooking?
		References
	How to Reduce Oil in French Fries: A Student Experiment
		Protocol
		Results
		References
	An Educational Satellite Project Around the Scientific Elucidation of Culinary Precisions in Lebanon and in the Middle East
		Introduction
		Research Activities
		Social Outreach
		Teaching Structures
			School Level
			Bachelor Degree Level
			Master Degree Level
		Continuing Education and Knowledge Transfer
		Regional Expansion
		Conclusion
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Bon Appétit, Marie Curie! A Stanford University Introductory science of Cooking Course
		Introduction and Overview
		Details of the Class Sessions
			Session 1: Taste and Flavor
			Session 2: Why Cook Food?
			Section 3: The Chemistry of Cooking
			Session 4: Fermentation
			Session 5: Sauces as Complex Mixtures
			Session 6: Modernist
			Session 7: Chocolate
		Teaching the Course On Stanford Campus
		Teaching in Paris
		Teaching During a Global Pandemic
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		References
	Molecular Gastronomy in Science Education and Science Communication at the National University of Singapore
		The Project: Reaching Out With Molecular Gastronomy in Singapore
			Science Education and Science Communication
			An Example of a Typical Workshop
		People and Planning
			People
			Roles, Tasks and Teaching Material
			Choice of Topics Related to Molecular Gastronomy
		Benefits and Impacts
			Teaching Science to Workshop Attendees
			Empowering Undergraduates
		Plans for the Future
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Molecular Gastronomy: A Universal Portal to the Molecular Sciences
		Acids and Bases
		Oxidoreduction
		Glycation/Maillard Reaction
		Enzyme Kinetics
		Elasticity
		References
	Heat Transfer in the Kitchen – Exercises
		Cooking Pasta
		Freezing an Apple Sauce
		Refrigerating a Soup Tray
	Ionic Diffusion in Spherified Calcium Alginate Gels: A Laboratory Experiment
		Introduction
		Sources and Chemistry of Alginic Acid and sodium Alginate
		Uses of Sodium Alginate
			Medicine and Dentistry
			Innovative Materials
			Art
			Molecular Cooking
		Physical Properties of Calcium Alginate
		Experimental Protocol
			Preparation of Sodium Alginate Solution
			Jellification and Conservation Bath
			Preparation of Acidic Cacl2 Solutions and Measurements of Turning Times and Diameter of Spheres
			Results
			Digital Spectrophotometric Analysis
		Conclusions
		Supplementary Material
		Acknowledgements
		References
	Simple Calculations Based On Cooking
		For Some of Us, Calculation Is a Need That Can Become Fun After Realizing That It Is Easy
		Simple Knowledge
		How to Calculate
		Which Tool?
		A First Summary, a “Backbone” for Calculation
		The Quality of Calculation: Validation
		A First Example: How Many Bubbles Form in a Whipped Egg White?
			The Question
			Analysis of the Question
				The Data Are Introduced
				Qualitative Model
				Quantitative Model
			Solving
			Expressing the Results
				Finding Digital Data
				Introduction of Data Into the Formal Solution
				Discussion
			Conclusions and Perspectives
		A Second Example: Why Do Oil Droplets Cream in Mayonnaise Sauce?
			The Question: In Natural Language, With the Right Words, in a Concise and Simple Way (subject, Verb, Complement)
			Analysis of the Question
				The Data Are Introduced
				Qualitative Model
		Quantitative Model
		Solving
			Looking for a Solving Strategy
			Implementing the Strategy
			Validation
		Expressing the Results
			The Formal Result Found Is Written Down Again
			Finding Digital Values
			Introduction of Data in the Formal Solution
				Discussion
			Why Does Stokes Drag Relate to R and Not r2?
			Conclusions and Perspectives
		A List of Questions That Students Can Use For Developing Their Problem-Solving Skills
			About Gases
			About Liquids
			About Foams
			About Emulsions
			About Gels
			About Suspensions
			More Complex Systems
		Conclusions
		References
	Teaching and Cooking With Culinary Teachers
	The Monthly Inrae-Agroparistech Seminars On Molecular Gastronomy
		Many Questions
		In Practice
		References
Part III Culinary Applications
	New Greek Cuisine
		Greek Salad (Granita)
		Cassoulet
		Dolmas
		Soft Boiled Egg
		Orange Explosion
		A Few Words by the Chef(s)
			What Is Your Professional Background?
			How Would You Define Your Cooking Style?
			The Recipe(s) You Are the Proudest Of?
			What Ingredients Inspire You More Particularly?
			How to Be Creative and Keep “fashion” in Cooking?
			What Do You Do Now That You Did Not Do Ten Years Ago?
			What Would You Like to Be Able to Do in 10 Years That You Are Not Able to Do Now?
			Do You Collaborate With Scientists? Other People (artists, Designers, Engineers, …)?
			What Is Your Strategy to Innovate/create new Dishes?
	3D Printed Note by Note Recipe: Soya Lobster Prototype
		Recipe
	Cooking (with) Olive Oil
		Crunchy Evoo
		EVOO Powder
		Jellified Evoo Vinaigrette
		EVOO Cold Mousse
		EVOO Hot Mousse
		EVOO Encapsulation
		EVOO Ice Cream
		EVOO Sponge Cake
		Frozen Evoo Soufflé
	Cooking for the Elderly
	Culinary Constructivism and Note by Note Cooking
		Debyes
			Debye Raspberry/basil
			Debye Capers/anchovies
			Debye Chocolate/orange
		Diracs
			Dirac Compact
			Fibrous Dirac 1
			Another Fibrous Dirac
		The “Chick Corea”
		The Whole Work
			First for Culinary Constructivism
			Culinary Precisions, Knowledge and Gourmandise
			Note by Note Cooking
		Conclusions and Perspectives
	Decantation
		An Old Process for Cooking and Alchemy
			The Old Dynamics
			Decanting in the Kitchen
			Other Applications of This System
		References
	Note by Note Recipes for a Press Conference and Tasting Organized at ITHQ, 2012
		Bubbles
		Cloud
		Tart
		Flama
		Ultra
		Annex: Soaking the Surimi
	Using Liquid Nitrogen to Prepare Ice Creams in the Restaurant
		The Brandy Sorbet by André Daguin
		Fruit Sorbet by Noël Gutrin
		Crêpes Mademoiselle by Philippe Labbé
	A Note by Note Traditional Chinese Dinner Created and Served in Singapore
		The Note by Note Menu, With Comments From the Chefs
			First Dish: Do, Re, Mi Come Together in a Mini Dim Sum Bamboo Steamer
			Second Dish: Sea of Change
			Third Dish: Longevity
			Fourth Dish: Lioness Head
			Fifth Dish: Save the Shark
			Sixth Dish: Hidden Heart
			Seventh Dish: Last Kiss
		The Recipes
			Do – Pot Sticker, Note by Note
				Dough:
				Meat Base:
				Daikon Fibre:
				Marinade + Meat Base:
				Dumplings:
				Method, Dough:
				Method, “meat” Base:
				Filling Preparation:
				Method, Dumplings:
			Re-Salted Egg Crisp, Note by Note
				Dough:
				Salted Egg Seasoning:
				Method, Dough:
			Mi – Bao Char Siu, Note by Note
				Dough:
				“Meat” Base:
				Daikon Fibre:
				Char Siu Sauce:
				Base Meat + Sauce:
				Method, Dough:
				Method, “Meat” Base:
				Method, Char Siu Sauce:
				Method, Filling:
				Filling + Dough:
			Sea of Change – Oyster Pancake, Note by Note
				Batter:
				Oyster Seasoning:
				Chilli Sauce Note:
				Method, Batter:
				Method, Seasoning:
				Method, Sauce:
			Longevity – Noodle, Note by Note
				Dough:
				Chicken Jelly:
				Directions:
			Lioness Head, Carrot Cake, Note Leek,  Note by Note
				“Meat” Base:
				Daikon Fibre:
				Note by Note Crumb:
				Meat Balls:
				Broth and Sauce:
				Daikon Cake:
				Note Leek:
				Method, “Meat” Base:
				Method, Crumb:
			Save the Shark, Note by Note
				Soup:
				Fin:
				Method, Soup:
				Method, Fin:
			Hidden Heart, Note by Note
				Coconut Agar Gel:
				Method:
			Last Kiss – Lollipop, Note by Note
				Filling:
				Method:
	Greek Diracs
		Introduction
		The Menu
			Amuse-Bouche Note by Note
			Entrée Note by Note
			First Course
			Sherbet Note by Note
			Main Course
			Dessert Note by Note
			Mignardise Note by Note
		The Recipes
			Evocation Sausage-Tempura, Evocation Sausage-Tempura,-Mustard-Wasabi
				Dirac Sausage-Tempura:
				Garlic Jelly:
				Dough for Frying:
				Note by Note Flour (portion):
				Note by Note Bread:
				Mustard Foam:
			Evocation Potato and Tomato Chips, Evocation Cucumber, French Bread and Garlic, Evocation Milk and Cheese
				Evocation Potato:
				Evocation Tomato:
				Evocation Milk and Cheese:
				Emulsion Cucumber:
			Evocation Mediterranean Seafoods
				Dirac Shrimp Bass:
				Sablé Dough (for the Shrimp):
				Feta Evocation:
				Tomato Sauce:
			Ravioli Evocation Earth
				Ravioli Dough:
				Beetroot Jelly:
				Cheese Foam:
				Garlic Transparent Gel:
				Foam Caramel – Mushroom – Beetroot:
				Beetroot, Mushroom and Caramel Juice:
			N-Fruit, Imaginary Fruit, Fruity and Sour, Kernel Evocation Caramel, Vanilla, Earth Evocation Coconut, Milk, Vanilla and Smoke
				N-Fruit Mousse:
				Meringue:
				Honey Caramel Caviar (14 G / Portion):
				Cigarette:
				N-fruit Skin:
				Vanilla Earth:
				Sponge Black:
	An Eclipse Dish
	Modern Swiss Cooking
		Sparkling Meringue / Double Cream of Gruyère
			Double Cream Mixture
			Spicy Cigar
			Sparkling Meringues
			Chocolate Sorbet
			Dressage
		Crisp Fondue “Vacherin Fribourgeois”
			Ingredients
			Recipe
			Finishing
	How Do Eggs Coagulate?
		Uncooking Eggs
		Using This Knowledge to Make New Eggs
		References
	Vegetable Salad
		Ingredients
			For the Broth
			For the Vegetables
			For the Dressing
		Methods
			For the Broth
			For the Vegetables
			For the Dressing
	Filtration
		Modern Techniques
		Future Developments?
		References
	Waiter! There Is Garlic in My Meringue!
		References
	Lobster and Juniper
		Lobster
		Juniper Gel
		Grapefruit Caramel
		Lobster Sabayon
		Juniper Oil
		Juniper Cream
	Molecular Cooking
		Tools
		Ingredients
		Methods and Techniques
			Centrifugation
			Cryo-Techniques Using Dry Ice and Liquid Nitrogen
			Distillation
			Drying
			Filtration
			Foaming
			Gelling
			Sous Vide Cooking
			Smoking
			Spherification
		Conclusion
		References
	Note by Note Cooking and Note by Note Cuisine
		What Is Note by Note Cooking?
		A Short Prehistory and a Birth
		Why Is Nbn Different From Molecular Cooking?
		Why Is It Important?
		A Short History
			A Comment On the Name
			First Lectures
			Hong Kong
			Pioneers
			Acceleration: Book and Courses
			International Contests
		Products
		Creating An Nbn Dish
		Recent Developments
		References
	Spherification
		Some Technical Information
			Sodium Alginate
				Instructions for Use
			The Role of Calcium
			General Principles
		Recipes
			Basic Spherification Recipe
			Reverse Frozen Spherification
			Cryogenic Cooking – Cryo-Diffusion for Making Frozen Spheres Which Are Then Gelled in a Sodium Alginate Bath
			A Recipe With Cranberries
		References
	The Raspberry Pear Viennoiserie
		The Four Stages of Materials Preparation
		Raspberry Pear Preparation
		The Crème Patissiere
			Stage # 2:
		Preparation and Cutting of the Pastry
		References
	Molecular Mixology: Welcome Coffee, a Cocktail With Ten Layers
		More Layers Than Usually Done: The Welcome Coffee
		A Cocktail for Restaurants
			Ingredients for Six People
			Preparation
				Recipe 1 – Gelled Strawberry Juice
				Recipe 2 – Foie Gras Cream
				Recipe 3 – Custard With Pistachio
				Recipe 4 – Olive Oil With Citrus
				Recipe 5 – Strawberry Mousse
			Finishing
		References
	Cube of “Chicken-Carrot” with Chips of “Chicken-Carrot”-“Basil-Lemon”
		Sphere of “Chicken-Carrot”
		Gelatine Cube “pork Stock”
		“Rind With Kiwi Seeds” Layer
		“Basil-Lemon” Chips
		“Tomato Granité” Juice
	Some of the Easiest Note by Note Recipes Served at Senses Restaurant
		Recipe 1. NbN “Cucumber” and Buttermilk Spheres (Figure 132.1)
			For the Coating
		Recipe 2. NbN “Nuts” Air Bubbles (Figure 132.2)
		Recipe 3. NbN “Goat Cheese” Frozen Pearls
		Recipe 4. NbN “Beetroot” and Nbn “Gorgonzola” Rocks
			Part 1
			Part 2
		Recipe 5. Nbn Bread Grissini (Figure 132.3)
		Recipe 6. Nbn “potato” Tuiles (Figure 132.4)
		Recipe 7. Smoked Bell Pepper Nbn Ketchup (Figure 132.5)
		Recipe 8. Orange Blossom Sorbet
	The Forest Floor
		Mushroom Meringue Recipe
		Bacon Soil Recipe
		Horseradish, Basil and Pea Sponge Recipe
		Basil and Matcha Tea Leaves Recipes
	A Note by Note Macaron
		Note by Note Cooking Can Teach a Lot
		The Recipe for the Macaron
	Note by Note Cooking
		Introduction
		The Base Chord
		The Middle Chord
		The Top Chord
		How to Work to Create Note by Note Flavours?
		References
	Note by Note Sushis
		Consistency of Rice “Note by Note”
		“Note by Note” Covering Sheet
	Slowly Cooked Lamb Neck With Fermented Flour Pancakes, Sunchoke Puree and Beer Glaze
		For the Lamb
		For the Sunchoke Puree
		For the Fermented Flour Pancake
		For the Confied Sunchokes
		For the Frosting of Black Beer
		A Few Words by the Chef
			What Is Your Professional Background?
			How Would You Define Your Cooking Style?
			The Recipe(s) You Are the Proudest Of?
			What Ingredients Inspire You More Particularly?
			How to Be Creative and Keep “fashion” in Cooking?
Index