Handbook of metallurgical process and design

Handbook of Metallurgical Process Design......Page 3
Preface......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Contributors......Page 9
2. Hot Working Temperatures......Page 13
C. Stress State Classification......Page 14
A. Forging......Page 15
B. Extrusion......Page 16
C. Rolling......Page 17
D. Drawing......Page 18
C. Strain Rate......Page 20
E. Friction......Page 21
G. Hardening......Page 22
A. Geometrical and Mechanics Issues......Page 23
1. Tensile Tests......Page 24
3. Compression Tests......Page 25
VII. DEFORMATION MODELING METHODS......Page 26
A. Slab Equilibrium......Page 27
B. Slip Line Method......Page 29
C. Upper-Bound Models......Page 30
D. Finite Element Analysis......Page 31
E. Modeling Limitations......Page 32
REFERENCES......Page 33
II. CLASSIFICATION OF DEFORMATION PROCESSES......Page 35
1. Stretching......Page 36
Deep Drawing Without a Blank Holder......Page 37
Conventional Deep Drawing......Page 38
Redrawing......Page 40
2. Rubber Forming I Guerin Process......Page 41
Conventional Spinning......Page 42
7. Ironing......Page 43
2. Stretch Forming......Page 44
1. Bending of Bar and Sheet with Pure Moment......Page 45
2. Strains, Stresses, and Moments in Sheet Bending......Page 46
5. Bending Allowance......Page 47
11. Roller Flanging......Page 48
F. Yield Criteria?Isotropic and Anisotropic......Page 49
B. Metallurgical and Microstructure Issues......Page 50
Uniaxial Tensile Testing......Page 51
Compression Test......Page 52
Instability in Tension......Page 54
Formability Testing......Page 55
3. Friction Tests......Page 56
VII. DEFORMATION MODELING METHODS......Page 57
SELECT REFERENCES......Page 58
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 59
A. Mills......Page 60
B. Rolls......Page 61
A. Flat Products......Page 62
B. Long Products......Page 63
C. Frictional Effects......Page 64
D. Dimensional Control......Page 66
IV. METALLURGICAL PHENOMENA......Page 67
B. Hot Rolling......Page 68
C. Cold Rolling......Page 69
D. Annealing......Page 70
A. High-Strength Low-Alloy Steels......Page 71
B. Multiphase Steels......Page 73
C. Steel for Electrical Uses......Page 74
D. High Formability Steels......Page 75
VI. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 76
REFERENCES......Page 77
INTRODUCTION......Page 80
B. Hot Rolling......Page 81
C. Rolling Conditions......Page 82
A. Work Hardening......Page 83
1. Cold Deformation......Page 84
Macroscopical Laws......Page 85
Microscopical Mechanisms......Page 87
Influence of Alloying Elements......Page 88
Microscopical Hardening Laws......Page 89
Flow Stresses......Page 90
1. Phenomenology......Page 92
2. Driving Force......Page 93
3. Kinetics......Page 94
6. Nucleation......Page 95
7. Growth Processes......Page 98
C. Textures......Page 100
1. Rolling Textures......Page 101
2. Recrystallization Textures......Page 103
3. Anisotropy......Page 105
B. Use of Thick Al Plate in Aeronautical Applications......Page 108
C. Hot Band for Welded Aluminum Wheels......Page 109
D. Production of Can Body Stock for Beverage Cans......Page 111
E. Brazing Sheet......Page 113
F. Aluminum Sheet for Car Body Panels......Page 116
G. Aluminum Foil Products for Packaging......Page 118
REFERENCES......Page 121
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 126
II. MORPHOLOGY OF MUSHY/SEMISOLID METAL......Page 127
III. DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF MUSHY METAL......Page 128
IV. STRESS-STRAIN CURVE OF MUSHY METAL......Page 130
V. CORE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FLOW STRESS AND SOLID FRACTION OF MUSHY MEAL......Page 131
VI. VISCOSITY OF SEMISOLID METAL......Page 132
A. Characterization of Low Shear Strength......Page 133
B. Yield Criterion......Page 135
C. Constitutive Equations......Page 137
IX. FLOW STRESS IN WHOLE MUSHY/SEMISOLID RANGE......Page 138
X. MANUFACTURING OF SEMISOLID METAL......Page 139
XI. SEMISOLID DIE CASTING AND SEMISOLID INJECTION MOLDING......Page 140
XII. MANUFACTURING OF MUSHY METAL......Page 141
XIII. MUSHY EXTRUSION......Page 142
XIV. MUSHYROLLING......Page 143
XV. MUSHYFORGING......Page 145
REFERENCES......Page 146
A. The Process......Page 147
B. The Die......Page 151
C. The Manufacturing System......Page 153
D. Productivity and Cost......Page 154
2. Dimensional Variability......Page 156
3. Variability in Surface Properties......Page 157
III. APPLICATIONS, ALLOY SELECTION, AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......Page 160
A. Product Development......Page 161
B. Designing with Aluminum Sections......Page 163
C. Limitations on Section Design......Page 168
D. Case: Helicopter Landing Deck on Offshore Platform......Page 170
1. Experimental Studies of Flow......Page 171
2. Temperature and Metallurgy......Page 178
2. Different Perspectives......Page 180
3. Plasticity and Extrusion......Page 181
4. Yield Criteria......Page 183
5. Strain Hardening and Plastic Flow......Page 184
6. The Uniqueness Theorem......Page 187
7. Upper and Lower Bound Solutions......Page 188
8. Slip-Line Theory......Page 192
9. Frictionless Extrusion with R=3......Page 196
10. Alternative Slip-Line Fields......Page 201
11. The Slab Method Applied in the Study of Friction on Bearing Surfaces......Page 202
12. Numerical Analysis......Page 205
V. RESEARCH TOPICS......Page 208
A. Numerical 3D Simulation and Laboratory Extrusion Experiment Validation......Page 209
B. Die Deflections, Friction, and Surface Formation in the Bearing Channel......Page 210
D. Alloy Development, Process Innovations, and the Limits of Extrudability......Page 211
REFERENCES......Page 212
B. Why Superplasticity?......Page 215
C. Expanding Literature Base on Superplasticity......Page 217
A. Metals......Page 218
C. Composites......Page 219
E. High Strain Rate Superplasticity......Page 220
A. Mechanical Behavior......Page 221
B. Microstructural Observations......Page 223
C. Cavitation Damage and Failure......Page 225
A. Plasticity and Superplasticity......Page 226
C. Law Based on Grain Growth......Page 228
D. Polynomial Forms......Page 230
F. Multiaxial Form of the Quantities......Page 231
A. Female Forming......Page 232
C. Reverse Forming......Page 233
1. Two-Sheet SPF/DB Process......Page 235
VI. PROCESS MODELING......Page 236
A. Processing Modeling Methods......Page 237
4. Physical Modeling Methods......Page 238
Hemispherical Dome......Page 239
Axisymmetrical Dome Forming......Page 240
Dome Forming Using Membrane Element Analysis......Page 241
C. Finite Element Methods......Page 243
2. Formulations for SPF/FEM Process Models......Page 245
3. SPASM-3D Formulation......Page 246
4. Contact and Friction......Page 247
5. Pressure Prediction Algorithms......Page 248
2. Forming Time......Page 249
1. Aerospace......Page 250
3. Automotive......Page 252
4. Architectural......Page 255
B. Thickness Control......Page 256
C. Die and Lubrication Material......Page 257
REFERENCES......Page 258
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 260
A. Conventional Slab Casting......Page 263
C. Strip Casting......Page 265
A. Ladle and Tundish Metallurgy......Page 267
A. Heat Transfer......Page 271
B. Role of Steel Chemistry on Heat Fluxes......Page 273
D. Spray Chamber......Page 275
E. Coupled Turbulent Flows and Solidificatlon for Continuous Casting of Steel Slabs......Page 276
F. Thermomechanical Behavior of Molds and Slabs......Page 277
1. Fluid Flows in the Design of Metal Delivery Systems......Page 278
Introduction......Page 279
Average Heat Fluxes to Twin-Roll Caster Systems......Page 280
Instantaneous Heat Flux Measurements for Twin-Roll Casters......Page 281
Theoretical Heat Fluxes Based on Perfect and Imperfect Contact......Page 283
3. Solidification and Strip Microstructures......Page 285
B. Twin-Belt Casters......Page 289
2. Fluid Flows; Design of Metal Delivery Systems......Page 291
3. Heat Withdrawal......Page 293
A. Introduction......Page 294
1. Twin-Roll Cast Strip......Page 295
In-Line Hot Rolling of Thin-Roll Cast Strip......Page 297
Gauge Characteristics......Page 298
VII. CONCLUSIONS......Page 299
REFERENCES......Page 301
I. HISTORY AND CONCEPT OF STEPANOV’S METHOD......Page 303
II. APPLICABILITY OF SM TO VARIOUS METAL ALLOYS......Page 305
III. EQUIPMENT......Page 306
VI. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION ALONG THE LENGTH AND OVER THE CROSS SECTION......Page 307
D. Chemical Purity......Page 308
Design Features......Page 309
Tool Peculiarities......Page 311
Processing Parameters......Page 314
Thermal Conditions and Processing Parameters......Page 315
Part Geometry......Page 318
Surface and Structure of Articles......Page 320
Surface and Structure Defects......Page 325
Properties of Articles......Page 326
Comparison of Alternative Methods?Perspective Kinds of Articles......Page 328
Application of Shaped Articles......Page 332
Round-Tube Exchangers......Page 333
Processing Requirements......Page 334
Structure and Mechanical Properties......Page 335
Electrochemical Properties......Page 339
2. Copper-Based Alloys......Page 341
B. Single Crystals of Shape Memory Effect Cu-Based Alloys......Page 343
2. Properties......Page 344
X. SHAPED COMPOSITE ARTICLES WITH ALUMINUM MATRIX......Page 346
B. Longitudinal Reinforced Composites......Page 347
2. Real Fiber Composites......Page 348
4. Strength......Page 349
5. Other Kinds of Longitudinal Reinforcing Composites......Page 351
REFERENCES......Page 352
II. SAND CASTING PROCESSES......Page 357
III. INTRODUCTION......Page 358
IV. MOLDING PROCESSES......Page 359
B. Chemically Bonded Sand Molding......Page 360
D. No-Bake Molding......Page 361
4. Phenolic Urethanes......Page 362
E. Procedural Effects......Page 363
F. Lost Foam Casting......Page 364
1. The Lost Foam Casting Process Sequence......Page 365
2. LFC Process Advantages......Page 369
3. LFC Process Disadvantages......Page 370
A. Solidification and Grain Development......Page 371
B. Macro- and Microshrinkage Formation......Page 372
C. Aluminum Alloy Solidification and Structure Formation......Page 373
D. Shrinkage Porosity Formation......Page 374
E. Hydrogen Effects on Porosity......Page 375
2. Porosity Effects on Properties......Page 376
G. Microstructure Development in Cast Iron......Page 378
VI. NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION AND CORRELATIONS WITH PROPERTIES......Page 379
A. Density Measurements......Page 381
1. Radiation Sources......Page 382
D. Ultrasonic Inspection......Page 383
F. Nondestructive Evaluation-Property Correlations in A356-T6 Aluminum......Page 386
1. Tensile Property Correlations with Density......Page 387
2. Property Correlations with X-Ray Data......Page 388
4. Metallography and Fractographic Correlations......Page 389
G. Nondestructive Evaluation Applications to Gray and Ductile Iron......Page 390
1. Graphite Effect on Ultrasonic Nondestructive Evaluation......Page 391
2. Matrix Effects on Ultrasonic Measurements......Page 392
3. Microshrinkage Effects on Ultrasonic Signals......Page 393
REFERENCES......Page 403
2. Cold Chamber Process......Page 409
4. Die Casting System Design Considerations......Page 411
A. The P-Q2 Diagram......Page 412
1. Instrumentation Requirements......Page 413
4. Interpretation of Shot System Data......Page 414
1. Machine Characteristic Line......Page 415
2. Gooseneck/Nozzle Characteristic Line......Page 416
3. Gate or Die Characteristic Line......Page 418
4. Metal-Velocity Lines......Page 419
A. Selecting the Die Casting Machine......Page 420
B. Selecting a Runner and Gate System......Page 422
D. Segmenting the Casting......Page 425
E. Calculation of Gate Dimensions......Page 426
F. Determining Gate Velocity......Page 428
G. Calculating the Runner Dimensions......Page 429
H. Determining Shape of Runners......Page 432
J. Overflow System Design and Vents......Page 433
A. Introduction......Page 439
1. Casting and Cooling Passage Configurations Studied......Page 440
1. Equations for Cases 1 and 2, Infinite-Plate and Infinite-Strip Castings Cooled by Water Lines......Page 443
3. Case 1: Infinite Plate Castings Cooled by Water Lines......Page 444
4. Case 2: Infinite Strip Casting Cooling by a Single Water Line......Page 446
5. Infinite Plate and Infinite Strip Castings Cooled by Fountains......Page 447
6. General Procedures for Designing the Die Cooling System......Page 449
8. Plate Casting Cooled by Water Lines......Page 451
10. Strip Casting Cooled by Fountains......Page 452
11. Accuracy of the Procedure for Determining the Cooling Capacity of Dies......Page 453
A. Heat Input......Page 454
C. Values for Phi and beta [For Use in Eq. 12]......Page 455
D. Value of Water Temperature Tc......Page 456
REFERENCES......Page 460
I. GENERAL ASPECTS......Page 461
II. STEEL TRANSFORMATION......Page 462
III. IRON-CARBON Fe?C PHASE DIAGRAM......Page 463
IV. STEEL TIME AND TEMPERATURE TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS......Page 469
A. Time-Temperature Transformation Diagrams......Page 470
B. Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams......Page 472
V. HARDENABILITY......Page 478
1. Jominy Bar End-Quench Test......Page 481
2. Grossmann Hardenability......Page 483
VI. AUSTENITIZATION......Page 485
A. Full Annealing......Page 488
D. Recrystallization Annealing......Page 489
F. Spheroidizing Soft Annealing......Page 490
VIII. NORMALIZING......Page 491
IX. STRESS RELIEVING......Page 492
A. Quenchant Selection and Severity......Page 493
C. Surface Condition......Page 494
F. Quenchant Uniformity......Page 495
XI. TEMPERING......Page 496
XII. AUSTEMPERING......Page 501
XIII. MARTEMPERING......Page 502
XIV. DIRECT HEAT TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY......Page 504
XV. HEAT-TREATING PROCESS MODELING AND SIMULATION......Page 506
REFERENCES......Page 510
A. Thermodynamics of Carburizing Processes......Page 514
B. Kinetics of Carburizing Processes......Page 519
C. Classification of Carburizing Processes......Page 523
E. Heat Treatment After Carburizing......Page 524
F. Relationships Among Structure and Properties......Page 529
2. Impact Bending Fatigue Life......Page 535
4. Intergranular Oxidation......Page 536
5. Tooth Bending Fatigue Testing of Gears......Page 537
6. Residual Stress of Carburized Steels......Page 538
7. Influence of Shot Blasting and Peening......Page 539
8. Influence of Residual Stress and Intergranular Oxidation on Fatigue Strength......Page 540
1. Carbon and Nitrogen Diffusion into the Steel Surface......Page 541
2. Role of Nitrogen in the Carbonitriding Process......Page 542
Changes of Carbon Potential in the Furnace Atmosphere......Page 543
Reduction of the Austenite Transformation Temperature to Martensite......Page 544
4. Heat Treatment After Carbonitriding......Page 545
REFERENCES......Page 547
II. NITRIDING AS A COMPETITIVE OPTION OF SURFACE HARDENING......Page 551
3. Diffusion Layers......Page 552
1. General......Page 553
2. Conventional Gas Nitriding......Page 554
6. Other Modifications of Nitriding......Page 555
B. Control of the Nitriding Process......Page 556
D. Kinetics of the Nitriding Process......Page 557
2. Microstructure and Features of Nitrided Layers on Alloyed Steel......Page 558
3. Microstructure and Features of Nitrided Layers on Stainless Steels......Page 559
4. Microstructure and Features of Nitrocarburized Layers......Page 560
G. Effect of Pressure: High- and Low-Pressure Nitriding......Page 561
H. Nitriding of Nonferrous Alloys......Page 562
C. Combined Wear and Corrosion Resistance in Martensitic Stainless Steel......Page 563
G. Reduction of Overall Manufacturing Costs......Page 564
A. Nitride-Forming Elements and Characteristics of Nitrides......Page 566
2. Low- and Medium-Alloyed Hardenable Steels......Page 568
6. Stainless Steels......Page 569
8. Powdered Metal Components......Page 570
B. Surface Preparation......Page 571
C. Heating Rate and Initial Atmosphere......Page 572
E. Process Atmosphere......Page 573
B. Selection of Material......Page 574
D. Preliminary Heat Treatment and Core Hardness After Nitriding......Page 575
E. Dimensional Changes Occurring During Nitriding......Page 576
H. Selective Nitriding and Masking of Nonhardened Surfaces......Page 577
A. Oxynitriding......Page 578
C. Duplex Processes......Page 579
B. Gas Nitriding......Page 580
D. Salt-Bath Nitriding......Page 581
E. Plasma Ion Nitriding......Page 582
1. Functioning/Hardware Controls......Page 585
A. General......Page 587
1. Surface Hardness Testing......Page 588
2. Portable Hardness Testing......Page 589
5. Metallographic Evaluation......Page 590
C. Faults Originating During and Attributable to Nitriding......Page 591
1. Nonuniformity of the Nitrided Layer......Page 592
2. Brittleness of the White Layer......Page 594
REFERENCES......Page 595
A. Introduction......Page 597
B. Typical Applications of Induction Heating in Metal Processing......Page 598
A. What Is Induction Heating?......Page 599
B. Power Flow in Induction Heating Installation......Page 600
C. Electromagnetic Processes in Induction System......Page 601
D. Skin Effect and Reference Depth......Page 602
E. Workpiece Power......Page 604
1. Proximity Effect......Page 605
4. End Effects in Cylindrical System......Page 606
Edge Effect in Slab......Page 607
G. Electromagnetic and Thermal Properties of Materials......Page 608
H. Temperature Distribution in Induction Heating Processes......Page 609
J. Induction Coil Parameters Variation During the Heating Process......Page 610
K. Electrodynamic Forces in Induction Heating Systems......Page 611
B. Induction Coil Styles......Page 613
C. Induction Heating Coil Manufacturing......Page 616
A. Principles of Magnetic Flux Control......Page 618
3. Induction Coil and System Parameter Improvement......Page 619
B. Materials for Magnetic Flux Concentrators......Page 621
Ferrites......Page 622
Magnetodielectric Materials MDM......Page 623
MDM Application Technique......Page 624
A. Designed-for-Induction-Heating Strategy......Page 625
1. Detailed Analysis of the Engineering Specifications and Industrial Conditions......Page 626
2. Induction Coil Style and Process Type Selection......Page 627
3. Computer-Aided Design and Engineering of the Coil......Page 628
A. Current Status of Computer Simulation for Induction Heating......Page 629
3. Rule of Pyramid Strategy......Page 630
B. Simulation vs. Experimental Method......Page 631
C. Simulation of Axle Scan Hardening Process Using a 1-D Approach......Page 632
D. 2-D Simulation of Seam Annealing Process......Page 633
1. Vertical Loop Inductors......Page 634
1. Channel Furnaces......Page 636
2. Crucible Furnaces......Page 637
Cold Crucible Furnaces......Page 638
2. Surface Hardening of Machinery Parts......Page 639
Gear Hardening......Page 640
3. Quenching for Induction Heat Treating......Page 642
VIII. CONCLUSION......Page 644
REFERENCES......Page 645
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 647
A. Laser Heating and Temperature Cycle......Page 650
III. METALLURGICAL ASPECT OF LASER HARDENING......Page 652
IV. MICROSTRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION......Page 655
A. Mathematical Prediction of Hardened Depth......Page 656
B. Mathematical Modeling of Microstructural Changes......Page 659
VI. COMPUTING METHOD FOR CALCULATING TEMPERATURE CYCLE......Page 662
VII. LASER LIGHT ABSORPTIVITY......Page 665
B. Chemical Conversion Coatings......Page 667
C. Linearly Polarized Laser Beam......Page 668
IX. INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT ABSORBERS ON ABSORPTIVITY......Page 669
X. LASER-BEAM HANDLING TECHNIQUES......Page 675
XI. PRESENTATION OF CO2 LASER MACHINING SYSTEMS......Page 677
A. Possibilities of Kaleidoscope Use for Low-Power Lasers......Page 681
XII. RESIDUAL STRESS AFTER LASER SURFACE HARDENING......Page 683
XIII. THERMAL AND TRANSFORMATION RESIDUAL STRESSES......Page 684
XIV. MATHEMATICAL MODEL FOR CALCULATING RESIDUAL STRESSES......Page 685
XV. INFLUENCE LASER SURFACE TRANSFORMATION HARDENING PARAMETERS ON RESIDUAL STRESSES......Page 686
XVI. RESIDUAL STRESSES, MICROSTRUCTURES, AND MICROHARDNESSES......Page 689
XVII. SIMPLE METHOD FOR ASSESSMENT OF RESIDUAL STRESSES......Page 690
XVIII. INFLUENCE OF PRIOR MATERIAL HEAT TREATMENT ON LASER SURFACE HARDENING......Page 692
XIX. INFLUENCE OF LASER SURFACE HARDENING CONDITIONS ON RESIDUAL STRESS PROFILES AND FATIGUE PROPERTIES......Page 694
XX. PREDICTION OF HARDENED TRACK AND OPTIMIZATION PROCESS......Page 701
XXI. MICROSTRUCTURE AND RESIDUAL STRESS ANALYSIS AFTER LASER SURFACE REMELTING PROCESS......Page 703
A. Dimensions of the Remelted Track......Page 705
B. Mathematical Modeling of Localized Melting Around Graphite Nodule......Page 707
C. Transition Between the Remelted and Hardened Layers......Page 708
E. Evaluation of Residual Stresses After Laser Remelting of Cast Iron......Page 709
XXII. ASSESSMENT OF DISTORTION AND SURFACE CHANGES......Page 714
XXIV. FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF LASER SURFACE HARDENED MATERIAL......Page 717
XXV. WEAR PROPERTIES OF LASER SURFACE HARDENED MATERIAL......Page 718
XXVI. REMELTING OF VARIOUS ALUMINUM ALLOYS......Page 722
XXVII. CORROSION PROPERTIES OF LASER SURFACE REMELTED IRON......Page 730
REFERENCES......Page 732
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 738
A. Kinetics of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties of Material......Page 739
III. BASIC REGULARITIES OF THE FORMATION OF RESIDUAL STRESSES......Page 740
B. Why Compressive Stresses Remain in the Case of Through-Hardening......Page 742
1. Opportunities of Natural and Numerical Modeling of Steel Part Quenching Process......Page 743
IV. REGULARITIES OF CURRENT STRESS DISTRIBUTION......Page 744
A. Some Advice on Heat Treatment of Machine Parts......Page 746
V. SHELL HARDENING OF BEARING RINGS THROUGH-SURFACE HARDENING......Page 747
A. Heating During Through Surface Hardening......Page 750
B. Quenching During Through Surface Hardening......Page 751
2. Through-Surface Hardening of Rollers......Page 753
A. Through-Surface Hardening of Small-Size Driving Wheels Made Out of 58 55PP Steel......Page 754
VII. NEW METHODS OF QUENCHING......Page 762
VIII. DISCUSSION......Page 764
IX. CONCLUSIONS......Page 767
REFERENCES......Page 768
A. Temper Designation System......Page 770
Natural Aging......Page 771
Precipitation Heat Treatment Artificial Aging......Page 772
3. Effect of Dispersoids......Page 774
4. Alloy System Al?Cu?Mg 2xxx......Page 775
6. Alloy System Al?Zn?Mg?Cu 7xxx......Page 776
C. Quench Sensitivity and Effect of Quench Rate......Page 777
1. Precipitate-Free Zone Formation During Quenching......Page 778
II. QUENCHANTS......Page 781
A. Water......Page 782
B. Polymer Quenchants......Page 784
III. QUENCH FACTOR ANALYSIS......Page 785
1. Multiple Quenchant......Page 787
2. Jominy End Quench......Page 788
3. C Curves......Page 790
B. Property Prediction......Page 791
REFERENCES......Page 793
1. Evaporation......Page 796
2. Sputtering......Page 797
3. Vacuum Arc......Page 798
C. Coating Materials......Page 799
Film Structure......Page 801
2. Pressure......Page 802
Doped Coatings......Page 803
F. Summary......Page 804
Reduction......Page 805
2. Thermodynamic Criteria......Page 806
1. Reactors......Page 807
E. Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition......Page 810
1. Classification of PECVD......Page 811
1. Mechanism of Photochemical Vapor Deposition......Page 814
2. Films Deposited by Photo-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition......Page 816
B. Techniques and Equipment......Page 817
1. Ion Species......Page 820
2. Ion Dose......Page 821
D. Implantation Energy......Page 823
4. Plasma Immersion Ion Implantation......Page 824
3. Intense Pulsed Ion Beam IPIB......Page 825
F. Contamination......Page 826
D. Plasma Nitriding and PBPVD......Page 827
REFERENCES......Page 828
II. THERMAL SPRAY MARKET......Page 837
A. Powder Feedstock......Page 838
B. Wire Feedstock......Page 840
A. Coating Formation......Page 842
2. Surface Pretreatment Options......Page 844
C. Porosity and Surface Characteristics......Page 845
A. Flame Spraying......Page 846
B. HVOF Spraying......Page 847
D. Arc Spraying......Page 848
E. Plasma Spraying......Page 849
F. Cold Gas Spraying......Page 850
G. Thermal Spray-Related Processes......Page 851
VI. NEW DEVELOPMENTS AND NEW APPLICATIONS......Page 852
VII. SIMULATION OF THERMAL SPRAYING......Page 853
B. Plasma-Particle Interaction......Page 854
C. Particle-Substrate Interaction......Page 855
E. Experimental Verification......Page 856
A. Process Control Tools......Page 857
B. Nondestructive Testing of Thermally Sprayed Coatings......Page 858
REFERENCES......Page 859
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 861
A. Shot Peening......Page 862
C. Cementation......Page 863
D. Ion Implantation......Page 864
B. Adhesion of Coatings......Page 865
A. Wear Resistance......Page 867
C. Nonferrous Abrasion and Erosion-Resistant Alloys......Page 868
E. Corrosion-Resistant Coatings......Page 869
V. COATING PROCESSES......Page 870
2. The Coating Structure......Page 871
C. Electroless......Page 872
D. Biomimetic......Page 873
1. The CVD Diamond Process......Page 874
2. The Substrate......Page 875
A. Thermal Spray......Page 876
1. Thermal Spray Processes......Page 877
2. Vacuum Evaporation’s Theory and Mechanisms......Page 880
1. Mechanism of Electrodeposition......Page 882
B. Soldering......Page 884
2. Surface Preparation Standards......Page 885
XII. CHOOSING THE COATING PROCESS AND SYSTEM......Page 887
B. Surface Preparation......Page 891
XIV. COATING CHARACTERIZATION......Page 893
B. Nondestructive Tests......Page 894
Penetration......Page 895
Development......Page 896
3. Magnetic Particles......Page 897
Sectioning......Page 898
Mounting......Page 899
Grinding and Polishing......Page 901
Etching......Page 903
Coating Thickness......Page 904
Interface Characterization......Page 906
Microstructural Characterization......Page 908
Operating Procedure......Page 911
Macrohardness Testing Rockwell and Brinell......Page 913
Adhesion Testing......Page 914
Composition......Page 915
Granulometry......Page 916
2. Characterization of Wires and Rods......Page 918
REFERENCES......Page 920
A. Machinability: Definition, Criteria, and Testing Methods......Page 922
4. Specification of Tool-Life......Page 923
7. Assessment of Machinability......Page 927
B. Machinability Database Systems......Page 928
D. Machinability Interrelationships......Page 929
2. Cutting Tool Classification......Page 930
3. Cutting Tool Geometry and Chip-Groove Selection......Page 931
III. EVALUATION OF MACHINING PERFORMANCE MEASURES IN DESIGNING FOR MACHINING......Page 932
1. Analytical and Numerical Modeling of Cutting Forces, Chip Thickness, Chip Flow and Chip Curl......Page 937
Slip-Line Modeling SLM of Chip Formation......Page 938
Finite Element Modeling FEM of Chip Formation......Page 939
2. Empirical Modeling of Tool-Life......Page 941
New Tool-Life Relationships......Page 942
3. AI-Based Modeling of Chip-Form/Chip Breakability......Page 945
Case Study: Hybrid Modeling of Tool- Wear Sensor-Based and Analytical Models......Page 946
3. Chip-Form/Chip Breakability......Page 949
B. Optimization of Turning Operations......Page 950
1. Effect of Progressive Tool-Wear......Page 951
Case Study 2: Optimal Selection of Cutting Tool Inserts Using Nonlinear Programming......Page 952
V. JIGS AND FIXTURES IN DESIGNING FOR MACHINING......Page 953
REFERENCES......Page 956