Handbook Of Industrial Automation

Handbook of Industrial Automation......Page 1
Preface......Page 4
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 10
1.2 Basic Probability Concepts......Page 13
1.2.2 Probability Measure......Page 14
1.2.3 Dependence and Independence......Page 15
1.3.1 Types of Random Variables......Page 16
1.3.4 Graphical Representation of Probabilities......Page 18
1.3.6 Cumulative Distribution Function......Page 19
1.4 Univariate Discrete Models......Page 20
1.4.2 The Discrete Uniform Distribution......Page 21
1.4.6 The Hypergeometric Distribution......Page 22
1.5.2 The Exponential Distribution......Page 23
1.5.3 The Gamma Distribution......Page 24
1.5.4 The Beta Distribution......Page 25
1.5.8 The t Distribution......Page 26
1.6.1 Multidimensional Discrete Random Variables......Page 27
1.6.2 Multidimensional Continuous Random Variables......Page 28
1.6.4 Moments of Multidimensional Random Vaiables......Page 29
1.6.6 Multivariate Moment-Generating Function......Page 30
1.6.8 The Marshall-Olkin Distribution......Page 31
1.7.1 Moment-Generating Function......Page 32
1.7.2 Characteristic Function......Page 33
1.8.1 One-to-One Transformations......Page 35
1.10 Order Statistics and Extremes......Page 36
1.10.2 Distributions of Subsets of Order Statistics......Page 37
1.10.4 Limiting Distributions of Order Statistics......Page 38
1.11 Probability Plots......Page 39
1.11.3 The Normal Probability Plot......Page 40
1.11.5 The Gumbel Probability Plot......Page 41
References......Page 43
2.1 SETS......Page 45
2.1.1 Set Operations......Page 46
2.1.1.1 Venn Diagrams......Page 47
2.1.1.2 Rigorous Proofs......Page 48
2.2.1 Ordered Pairs......Page 49
2.2.3 Relations......Page 50
2.2.5 Order Relations......Page 52
GENERAL REFERENCES......Page 53
3.1.1 Shapes and Sizes......Page 54
3.1.2 Matrix Arithmetic......Page 55
3.1.4 Gaussian Elimination......Page 58
3.1.5 Elementary Matrices and Inverses......Page 59
3.1.6 LU-Factorizations......Page 61
3.2.1 Definitions and Examples......Page 62
3.2.2 Bases......Page 63
3.2.3 Coordinate Maps and Change-of-Basis Matrices......Page 64
3.2.4 Linear Transformations......Page 65
3.2.5 Matrix Representations of Linear Transformations......Page 66
3.3.1 Determinants......Page 67
3.3.2 Eigenvalues......Page 69
3.4.1 Real and Complex Definitions......Page 70
3.4.2 Orthogonality......Page 71
3.4.3 Least-Squares Problems......Page 72
3.4.4 Normal Matrices......Page 73
REFERENCES......Page 74
4.1.1 Functions and Their Properties......Page 75
4.1.3 Infinite Limits and Limits at Infinity......Page 77
4.1.4 Continuity......Page 78
4.2.1 The Derivative......Page 79
4.2.2 L\'Hospital\'s Rule......Page 81
4.2.4 Curve Sketching......Page 83
4.2.5 Implicit Differentiation......Page 84
4.3.1 Antiderivatives......Page 85
4.3.2 The Integral and Its Properties......Page 86
4.4.1 Integration by Substitution......Page 87
4.4.3 Trigonometric Integrals......Page 88
4.4.5 Partial Fractions......Page 89
4.4.6 Numerical Integration......Page 90
4.5.2 Volume and Surface Area of a Solid of Revolution......Page 91
4.5.3 The Length of a Curve......Page 92
4.6.1 First-Order Equations......Page 93
4.6.2 Partial Derivatives of Functions of Two Variables and Exact Equations......Page 94
4.6.3 Integrating Factors......Page 95
REFERENCES......Page 96
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 97
5.2.1 Separable Equations......Page 98
5.2.3 Exact Differential Equations......Page 99
5.2.4.2 Bernoulli\'s Equation......Page 101
5.2.4.4 Independent Variable Absent......Page 102
5.4 SECOND-ORDER LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH CONSTANT COEFFICIENTS......Page 103
5.5 LINEAR EQUATIONS WITH NONCONSTANT COEFFICIENTS......Page 105
5.6 SYSTEMS OF LINEAR FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS......Page 106
5.6.1.1 Sums, Determinants, and Products of Matrices......Page 107
5.6.1.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a Matrix......Page 109
5.6.1.4 Canonical Forms of a Matrix......Page 110
5.6.2 Solutions of a Homogeneous System of Linear Differential Equations......Page 111
5.7 NONLINEAR EQUATIONS......Page 117
5.7.1.2 Poincaré-Bendixson Theory......Page 118
5.7.2 Modern Techniques......Page 120
5.8 NUMERICAL OR COMPUTER ANALYSIS......Page 121
REFERENCES......Page 122
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 123
6.2 BOOLEAN FUNCTION......Page 125
6.3 SWITCHING FUNCTIONS......Page 127
6.4 BOOLEAN MATRICES......Page 130
6.5 GENERALIZATION OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA......Page 135
REFERENCES......Page 137
7.1.1.1 Abelian Groups......Page 138
7.1.2 Basic Concepts......Page 139
7.1.3 Main Theorems......Page 140
7.1.4 Permutation Groups......Page 141
7.2 RINGS AND FIELDS......Page 142
7.2.2 Basic Concepts......Page 143
REFERENCES......Page 144
1.2 INSTRUMENTATION AMPLIFIERS AND ERROR BUDGETS......Page 145
1.3 INSTRUMENTATION FILTERS......Page 148
1.4 MEASUREMENT SIGNAL CONDITIONING......Page 150
1.5 DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERTERS......Page 154
1.6 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERTERS......Page 155
1.7 SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION......Page 158
1.8 DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM ERROR......Page 162
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 164
2.2 MOTION CONTROL ARCHITECTURES......Page 165
2.3.1 Flexible-Link Pendulum......Page 166
2.3.1.1 Linear-Approach Modeling......Page 168
2.3.1.2 Nonlinear-Approach Modeling......Page 169
2.3.2 Rigid-Link Pendulum......Page 170
2.3.2.1 Representation with State Variables......Page 172
2.3.3 Motorized Robot Arm......Page 174
2.3.4.1 Digital Controller......Page 177
2.3.4.2 Digital-Controlled Servo System......Page 178
2.3.5.1 System Modeling......Page 179
2.3.5.2 System Analysis......Page 180
2.3.5.3 System Compensation Objective......Page 181
2.3.5.4 System Analysis with Compensator......Page 182
REFERENCES......Page 183
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 184
3.2 PROCESS VARIATION......Page 185
3.3 IN-PROCESS MEASUREMENTS FOR PROCESS CONTROL......Page 187
3.4 IN-PROCESS MEASUREMENTS FOR PROCESS QUALIFICATION......Page 190
REFERENCES......Page 191
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 192
1.2 CLASSICAL APPROACH TO PLANT AUTOMATION......Page 194
1.3 COMPUTER-BASED PLANT AUTOMATION CONCEPTS......Page 196
1.4 AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY......Page 198
1.4.1 Computer Technology......Page 199
1.4.2 Control Technology......Page 200
1.5.1 Hierarchical Distributed System Structure......Page 203
1.5.2 Hierarchical Levels......Page 205
1.5.3 Data File Organization......Page 212
1.6 COMMUNICATION LINKS REQUIRED......Page 216
1.7 RELIABILITY AND SAFETY ASPECTS......Page 220
REFERENCES......Page 221
2.2.1 Differential Equations and Difference Equations......Page 223
2.2.4 Impulse Responses......Page 224
2.2.7 Matrix Impulse Responses......Page 225
2.3.1 Absolute Stability......Page 226
2.4.1.2 Bounded-Input-Bounded-Output Time Domain Criteria......Page 227
2.4.1.4 Routh Test (Continuous-Time Systems)......Page 228
2.4.1.5 Nyquist Stability Criterion......Page 230
2.4.1.7 Jury Test (Discrete-Time Systems)......Page 231
2.4.1.8 w-Plane Transformation/Routh Test for Discrete-Time Systems......Page 232
2.4.1.10 Kharatonov Polynomials......Page 233
2.4.3.1 Distance Measure of the Poles......Page 234
2.4.3.2 Gain and Phase Margin......Page 235
2.5.1 Linearization and Small Perturbation Stability......Page 236
2.5.2 Lyapunov Stability for Nonlinear Systems......Page 237
REFERENCES......Page 238
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 239
3.3 DIGITAL SYSTEMS......Page 241
3.4 FOURIER ANALYSIS......Page 242
3.5 WINDOWING......Page 245
3.6.1 Infinite Impulse Response Filters (IIR)......Page 247
3.6.3 Classical Chebyshev Filter......Page 249
3.6.5.1 Impulse-Invariant IIR Design......Page 250
3.6.6 Warping......Page 252
3.6.6.1 Classical IIR Design......Page 253
3.6.7 Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters......Page 254
3.6.8 Multirate Systems......Page 255
3.7 DSP TECHNOLOGY AND HARDWARE......Page 257
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 258
4.1 ORIGINS OF SAMPLED-DATA SYSTEMS......Page 259
4.2 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF SAMPLED-DATA SIGNALS......Page 261
4.3 INVERSE z-TRANSFORM......Page 262
4.4 LINEAR SHIFT-INVARIANT SYSTEMS......Page 264
4.5 TRANSFER FUNCTION......Page 265
4.6 STABILITY OF AN LSI SYSTEM......Page 266
4.7 LSI SYSTEM FREQUENCY RESPONSE......Page 267
4.8 STATE-VARIABLE REPRESENTATION OF LSI SYSTEMS......Page 268
4.9 DIRECT II ARCHITECTURE......Page 269
4.10 CASCADE ARCHITECTURE......Page 270
4.11 SUMMARY......Page 272
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 274
1.1.1.2 Brief Overview......Page 275
1.1.2.1 Least-Squares Method......Page 276
1.1.3.2 Centering of Data......Page 277
1.1.5.1 Vector Notation......Page 278
1.1.7.1 Two-Predictor Model......Page 279
1.1.7.3 The Projection Maxtrix, P......Page 280
1.1.8.4 Prediction Interval for a Future Value......Page 281
1.2.1.4 R-Squared and Standard Error......Page 282
1.2.1.5 Analysis of Variance......Page 283
1.2.3 Resistant Regression......Page 284
1.2.4 More on Residuals......Page 285
1.2.5 Conclusions......Page 286
1.3.2 Uncorrelated Predictor Variables......Page 287
1.3.4 Variable Selection—All Possible Regressions......Page 288
1.3.5.1 Forward Selection......Page 289
1.3.5.2 Backward Elimination......Page 290
1.3.5.3 Hierarchical Regression......Page 291
1.3.6 Indicator (Grouping) Variables......Page 293
1.4.2 Sensitive or High Leverage Points......Page 295
1.4.4 Eigenvalues and Principal Components......Page 296
1.4.5 Ridge Regression and Prior Information......Page 297
1.4.6 Weighted Least Squares......Page 298
1.5.2 Safety Program Data......Page 299
1.5.3 Experimental Design Data Set......Page 300
REFERENCES......Page 301
2.1.1 Introduction......Page 302
2.1.2 Examples 1-3......Page 303
2.1.3.3 Dual Problem for Example 3......Page 307
2.1.4.2 Integer Variables......Page 308
2.2.4 Examples 22-25......Page 323
3.1.2 When Is Simulation Appropriate?......Page 328
3.2.1 Problem Definition......Page 329
3.2.3 System Definition......Page 330
3.3.2 Final Selection......Page 331
3.4 DEFINING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE MEASURES......Page 332
3.5.2 Run Length and Replications......Page 333
3.5.3.2 Objectives and Terminology......Page 334
3.6.3 Modeling Assumptions......Page 335
3.7.1 Objectives and Definitions......Page 336
3.8.1.1 Measures of Location......Page 337
3.8.1.2 Measures of Variability......Page 338
3.8.4 Documentation......Page 339
REFERENCES......Page 340
4.3 STATE AUTOMATA......Page 341
4.4 ORIGINAL PETRI NET BASICS......Page 342
4.4.1 Petri Net Notation and Definitions......Page 343
4.4.3 State Equation of a Petri Net......Page 344
4.5 PROPERTIES OF ORDINARY PETRI NETS......Page 345
4.5.1.5 Conservation......Page 346
4.6.1 Marked Graph......Page 347
4.6.3 Features of Petri Nets......Page 348
4.7.2 Determining the Behavioral Properties Using Coverability Tree......Page 349
4.7.3.2 Concepts of P-Invariants and T-Invariants......Page 350
4.7.3.3 Obtaining Invariants of a Petri Net......Page 351
4.7.3.4 Invariant Analysis of a Pure Petri Net......Page 352
4.8.1.1 TPPN Approach......Page 353
4.8.1.2 TTPN Approach......Page 354
4.9.1 Initial Petri Net Model......Page 355
4.9.2.4 Mutual Exclusion Petri Net Module......Page 356
4.9.4 Stepwise Refinement of Transitions......Page 357
4.9.5.1 Parallel Mutual Exclusion (PME)......Page 358
4.10.1 Multiple Places......Page 359
REFERENCES......Page 360
5.2.1 Expected Utility Model......Page 362
5.2.2 Multiattribute Utility Function......Page 363
5.3 MEASURABLE VALUE THEORY......Page 365
5.3.1 Measurable Value Function Under Certainty......Page 366
5.3.2 Measurable Value Function Under Risk......Page 369
5.3.3 Measurable Value Function Under Uncertainty......Page 371
5.4.1 Preference Characteristics and Status Characteristics......Page 373
5.4.2 Algorithm of Behavioral AHP......Page 374
5.4.3.2 Rank Reversal Could Be Observed (I)......Page 375
5.4.3.3 Rank Reversal Could Be Observed (II)......Page 376
REFERENCES......Page 378
1.2 TOUCH AND TACTILE SENSING......Page 380
1.2.1 Touch Sensor Technology......Page 381
1.2.1.2 Resistive-Based Sensors......Page 382
1.2.1.4 Capacitive-Based Sensors......Page 383
1.2.1.6 Optical Sensors......Page 384
1.2.1.8 Piezoelectric Sensors......Page 386
1.2.1.10 Silicon-Based Sensors......Page 387
1.2.2 Slip Sensors......Page 388
1.3 FORCE AND TORQUE MEASUREMENT......Page 389
1.3.1 External to the Robot......Page 392
REFERENCES......Page 393
2.2 HUMAN VISUAL SYSTEM......Page 395
2.3 MACHINE VISION HARDWARE COMPONENTS......Page 397
2.4.1 Image Functions and Characteristics......Page 398
2.4.2 Frequency Space Analysis......Page 401
2.4.2.1 Fourier Transform......Page 402
2.4.3.1 Histograms......Page 403
2.4.4.1 Edge Detection......Page 406
2.4.4.2 Three Dimensional—Stereo......Page 408
2.4.5.1 Neural Networks......Page 409
2.4.5.2 Supervised Learning and Unsupervised Learning......Page 410
2.4.7 Future Development of Machine Vision......Page 411
2.5.2 Inspection......Page 412
2.5.2.5 Defect Location......Page 413
2.5.3.4 No Overlap......Page 414
2.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 415
REFERENCES......Page 416
3.1.1 Competing Technologies......Page 417
3.1.2 Note on Two-Dimensional Vision Systems......Page 418
3.2.2 Pinhole Camera Model......Page 419
3.2.3.1 Passive Stereo Imaging......Page 421
3.2.3.2 Active Stereo Imaging (Moire Systems)......Page 422
3.2.3.3 Laser Scanner......Page 423
3.2.4 Triangulation-Resolution......Page 424
3.3.1 Goals for Three-Dimensional Data......Page 426
3.3.2 Review of Cubic Splines......Page 427
3.3.3 Fitting Data to Splines......Page 429
3.3.4 Example......Page 430
REFERENCES......Page 431
4.1.1 MV in the Production of Goods and Services—a Review......Page 433
4.1.2 The Structure of Industrial Machine Vision......Page 434
4.1.3 Generic Applications......Page 436
4.1.4 Some Rules of Thumb......Page 437
4.2 IMAGE FORMATION......Page 438
4.2.1 Illumination......Page 440
4.2.2 Optics......Page 442
4.2.3 Video Array......Page 444
4.3.3 Correlation......Page 446
4.3.4 Edges—Location and Subpixelization......Page 447
4.4 INTERFACING AN MV SYSTEM......Page 449
4.5 SPEED AND COST CONSIDERATIONS......Page 450
4.6 VISION SYSTEM CALIBRATION......Page 451
1.3 A WATERSHED EVENT......Page 452
1.4 NEW INSIGHT EVOLVES......Page 453
1.5 A NEW APPROACH TO THE ENGINEERING OF MANUFACTURING EMERGES......Page 454
1.7 THE FUTURE MANUFACTURING ENTERPRISE......Page 455
1.9 CONCLUSION......Page 456
2.1.1 Product Positioning Strategies......Page 457
2.1.2.1 Job Shop......Page 458
2.1.2.3 Cellular Manufacturing System......Page 460
2.2 PUSH VERSUS PULL TECHNIQUES......Page 461
2.2.1.1 MRP Systems......Page 463
2.2.2.1 Kanban......Page 466
2.2.2.2 CONWIP......Page 469
2.2.3 System Comparisons......Page 470
2.3.1 Just in Time......Page 472
2.3.2 Theory of Constraints......Page 473
2.3.3 Synchronous Manufacturing......Page 475
2.3.4 Flow Manufacturing......Page 476
2.3.4.1 Key Implementation Elements......Page 477
2.4.1.1 Leadership......Page 480
2.4.2 Customer Focus......Page 481
2.4.5 Quality......Page 482
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 483
3.2 INTELLIGENT CONTROL......Page 485
3.3 INTELLIGENT MANUFACTURING......Page 487
REFERENCES......Page 488
4.2 STATISTICS AND MEASUREMENT......Page 489
4.3 ONE-WAY CLASSIFICATIONS......Page 490
4.4 A GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION......Page 491
4.6 AN ITERATIVE ANALYSIS OF ONE-WAY DATA [2]......Page 492
4.8 TWO-WAY TABLES......Page 493
4.9 FIT IN TERMS OF ALCOHOL CONCENTRATION AND TEMPERATURE [2]......Page 496
REFERENCES......Page 498
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 499
5.2 AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS......Page 500
5.3 ROBOT CHARACTERISTICS......Page 503
5.4 ROBOT CONTROL STRATEGIES......Page 504
5.5 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS......Page 506
5.6 ROBOT ARM KINEMATICS......Page 509
5.6.1 Homogeneous Transformation Matrix......Page 511
5.6.2 The Denavit-Hartenberg Representation......Page 512
5.6.3 Manipulator Arm Kinematic Equations......Page 514
5.6.4 The Inverse Kinematic Solution......Page 516
5.6.5 Manipulator Motion Kinematic Equations......Page 518
5.7 ROBOT ARM DYNAMICS......Page 519
5.7.1 The Lagrange-Euler Formulation......Page 521
5.7.2 Dynamic Model of the SCARA Robot......Page 523
5.8 ROBOT NEURAL CONTROLLER......Page 524
REFERENCES......Page 525
6.1 INTRODUCTION AND BRIEF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 528
6.2 MATERIALS FUNDAMENTALS: STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES, AND PROCESSING RELATIONSHIPS IN METALS AND ALLOYS......Page 529
6.2.1 The Physical and Mechanical Metallurgy of Copper and Copper Alloys......Page 530
6.2.1.1 Electronic Structure of Atoms, Unit Cells, and Crystals......Page 531
6.2.1.2 Polycrystals, Crystal Defects, and Metal Deformation Phenomena: Introduction to Structure—Property Relationships......Page 534
6.2.1.3 Metalworking and Microstructure......Page 539
6.2.2 Alloying Effects and Phase Equilibria......Page 544
6.2.2.1 Precipitation and Phase Transformations......Page 545
6.2.3 Strengthening Mechanisms in Materials......Page 548
6.3.1 Structure and Properties of Ceramics......Page 552
6.4.1 Creep in Metals and Plastics......Page 557
6.4.2 Fracture of Materials......Page 559
6.4.3 Corrosion and Wear Phenomena......Page 560
6.5 CLOSURE......Page 563
FURTHER READING......Page 565
7.2 PLASTIC DEFORMATION FUNDAMENTALS......Page 566
7.4 ROLLING OPERATIONS......Page 567
7.5 FORGING OPERATIONS......Page 568
7.6 EXTRUSION......Page 569
7.7 SHEET-METAL OPERATIONS......Page 570
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 571
8.2.1 Technology......Page 572
8.2.2 Modeling......Page 574
8.3.1 Technology......Page 576
8.3.2 Modeling......Page 578
8.4 INJECTION-COMPRESSION MOLDING......Page 579
8.5.1 Technology......Page 580
8.5.2 Modeling......Page 581
8.6.1 Technology......Page 582
8.7.1 Technology......Page 584
8.8.1 Technology......Page 586
8.8.2 Modeling......Page 587
8.9.1 Technology......Page 588
8.9.2 Modeling......Page 590
8.10.1 Technology......Page 591
8.10.2 Modeling......Page 593
8.11.1 Technology......Page 594
8.11.2 Modeling......Page 596
REFERENCES......Page 598
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 606
1.2 MATERIAL FLOW ANALYSIS......Page 608
1.3 MATERIAL-HANDLING-SYSTEM DESIGN......Page 623
1.3.1 Containers......Page 625
1.3.2.3 Terminal Systems......Page 626
1.4.2 Using Material Flow Diagrams for Equipment Selection......Page 627
1.4.3 Equipment Selection Guide......Page 628
1.4.4 Industrial Forklift Trucks......Page 629
1.4.7 Automatic Guided Vehicle Systems......Page 632
1.5.3 Analysis and Design of Storage Systems......Page 634
1.5.4 Pallet Storage......Page 637
1.6 CONCLUSION......Page 639
FURTHER READING......Page 641
2.2 A BRIEF HISTORY......Page 642
2.3 A STATE OF MIND......Page 643
2.5 THE EQUATIONS OF INVENTORY......Page 644
2.7 TECHNOLOGY SHIFT......Page 645
2.8.1 Data Requirements......Page 647
2.9.1 Unit-Load Cranes......Page 648
2.9.2 Miniload Cranes......Page 649
2.9.3 Rack-Supported Versus Free-Standing Buildings......Page 650
2.10.1 Asynchronous Process Buffer Versus Storage System Paradigm......Page 651
2.10.2 Computing Cycle Times......Page 652
2.11.1 Objectivity of Solutions......Page 654
2.12 CONCLUSION......Page 655
REFERENCES......Page 656
3.1.2 Procedure......Page 657
3.1.7 Database......Page 658
3.1.8 Dunnage Experiment......Page 659
3.2.1 Introduction......Page 661
3.2.2 Reusable Container Inventory Control in a Distribution Network......Page 662
3.2.3.1 System Outline......Page 663
3.2.4.1 Modeling of a Transportation System for an Automobile Maker......Page 664
3.2.4.2 Modeling for a Fresh Fruit Company......Page 666
3.2.5 Conclusion......Page 669
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 670
4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 671
4.2.1 Two-Dimensional Stock-Cutting Example......Page 672
4.2.3 Factors Affecting Palletizing......Page 673
4.2.5.1 Heuristic Methods......Page 674
4.2.5.2 Artificial Intelligence Approaches......Page 675
4.3 CURRENT WORK IN AUTOMATED PALLETIZING......Page 676
4.3.1 Establishing Set Relations......Page 679
4.3.2 Search for Space......Page 680
4.4.1 Expert-System Improvement......Page 681
4.4.3.1 Hopfield......Page 682
4.4.3.4 Kohonen Self-Organizing Feature Maps......Page 683
REFERENCES......Page 684
1.2.1 Investigation Program Context......Page 686
1.2.2.1 Desired Roles for Investigations......Page 687
1.2.3 Nature of Investigation Processes......Page 688
1.2.5.1 Investigation Concepts......Page 689
1.2.5.2 Investigation Principles......Page 696
1.3 INVESTIGATION PROGRAM PLANNING......Page 698
1.3.1.4 Adopt Investigation Policy Changes (4)......Page 700
1.3.2.3 Define Investigation Process Deliverables (13)......Page 701
1.3.2.8 Adopt Investigation Plan (18)......Page 702
1.3.3.4 Establish Investigator Selection Criteria (24)......Page 703
1.3.3.8 Put Quality Controls in Place (28)......Page 704
1.3.4.9 Prepare Media Support (38)......Page 705
1.4.2.2 Data Acquisition and Processing......Page 706
1.4.3.1 Event Linking and Testing......Page 707
1.4.4.2 Recommendation Development......Page 708
1.4.6 Deliverables......Page 709
A.1 Application of the General Human Decision Model for Investigators......Page 710
C.1 Quality Assurance Checklists......Page 712
Developing Descriptions and Explanations of What Happened......Page 713
Developing Recommendations......Page 714
Internet Site References......Page 715
2.1.1 OSHA Enforcement Powers......Page 716
2.1.2 Federal Standards......Page 717
2.2.1 General Duty Clause......Page 718
2.2.2 Enforcement Priorities......Page 719
2.2.3 Compliance Procedures......Page 720
2.2.5 Performance Measures......Page 721
2.3.2.1 Gates......Page 722
2.3.2.2 Presence-Sensing Devices......Page 723
2.3.2.4 Automatic Brake Monitoring......Page 724
2.4 REPETITIVE MOTION HAZARDS......Page 725
2.5.2 Robotic Solutions......Page 726
2.6 SUMMARY......Page 727
REFERENCES......Page 729
3.2 TERMINOLOGY......Page 730
3.4 WHY DO WE NEED STANDARDS?......Page 733
3.7 PROVING COMPLIANCE......Page 734
3.9 WHAT IF NO STANDARD EXISTS?......Page 735
3.11.1 Regulatory Organizations......Page 737
3.11.2 Reference Standards and Guides Organizations......Page 738
ADDITIONAL READING......Page 745
1.1.1 Importance and Relevance of Human Factors Considerations in Manufacturing Systems Design......Page 746
1.1.2 The Human-Machine System Framework for Interface Design......Page 747
1.1.3 Scope of This Chapter......Page 748
1.2.2 The Human-Centered Design Approach......Page 749
1.3.1 User-Needs Analysis......Page 750
1.3.1.2 Characterization of the Task......Page 751
1.3.2 Allocation of Functions......Page 759
1.3.3.1 The Scientific Basis for Information Input and Processing......Page 762
1.3.3.2 The Scientific Basis for Human Control of Systems......Page 765
1.3.3.3 Displays......Page 767
1.3.3.4 Controls......Page 778
1.3.3.5 Other Design Considerations in Information Presentation and Control......Page 782
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 783
REFERENCES......Page 786
RECOMMENDED READING LIST......Page 789
2.2 PHYSICAL LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS......Page 790
2.4 VIDEO DISPLAY TERMINAL GUIDELINES......Page 791
REFERENCES......Page 792
3.1.1 Human Strength......Page 794
3.1.2 Purposes of Strength Measurement in Ergonomics......Page 795
3.1.2.1 Worker Selection and Placement......Page 796
3.1.3 Purpose of This Chapter......Page 797
3.2.2 Workplace Assessment......Page 798
3.2.5 Instructions......Page 799
3.2.10 Restraint Systems......Page 800
3.2.13 Subjects......Page 801
3.3.1 Definition of Isoinertial Strength......Page 802
3.3.3 Published Data......Page 803
3.3.4 The LIFTEST/Strength Aptitude Test Techniques......Page 804
3.3.5 The Strength Aptitude Test......Page 805
3.3.7 The Progressive Isoinertial Lifting Evaluation......Page 807
3.3.8.1 Is It Safe to Administer?......Page 808
3.3.8.5 Does It Predict Risk of Future Injury or Illness?......Page 809
3.4.3.1 Liberty Mutual......Page 810
3.4.4.1 Lifting or Lowering Tasks......Page 811
3.4.6.1 Task and Subject Variables......Page 812
3.4.7.2 Job Design......Page 813
3.4.8.2 Criterion Related Validity......Page 814
3.4.9.1 Is It Safe to Administer?......Page 815
3.5.2 Workplace Assessment......Page 816
3.5.3.1 Is It Safe to Administer?......Page 817
3.5.3.2 Does It Give Reliable, Quantitative Values?......Page 818
3.6 SUMMARY......Page 819
REFERENCES......Page 822
1.2 ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF ENGINEERING ECONOMICS......Page 825
1.3.2 Simple and Compound Interest......Page 826
1.3.4 Cash Flow Patterns......Page 827
1.3.5 Single-Payment Compound Amount Factor......Page 828
1.3.10 Capital Recovery Factor......Page 829
1.3.13 Frequency of Compounding and Its Impact on Equivalence......Page 833
1.3.14 Amortized Loans......Page 834
1.4.1 Present-Worth Method......Page 835
1.4.2 Annual-Worth Method......Page 836
1.4.3 Rate of Return Method......Page 837
1.5 AFTER-TAX ANALYSIS......Page 838
1.5.1 Depreciation......Page 839
1.5.4 After-Tax Analysis......Page 841
1.6 INFLATION......Page 842
1.6.3 Actual and Constant Dollars......Page 843
REFERENCES......Page 844
2.2.1 Cost Estimating Defined......Page 845
2.2.6 Cost Centers and Shop Orders......Page 846
2.2.7 Making the Initial Cost Estimate......Page 847
2.3 COST REVIEWS......Page 848
2.4.1 Learning Curves Defined......Page 849
2.4.2 Learning-Curve Considerations in Estimating Procedures......Page 850
2.5.1 Components of LOH Rates......Page 851
2.5.2 A Capital Budgeting Example......Page 852
2.5.4 Expense Rate Determination......Page 853
2.5.7 Hourly Rate Determination and Adjustment......Page 854
2.6.2 ABC Cost Recovery Methodology......Page 855
2.7.2 Definition of Part Families......Page 856
2.8 IMPACT OF AUTOMATION ON ESTIMATING PROCEDURES......Page 857
REFERENCES......Page 858
Index......Page 859