Handbook of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (Handbook Series for Mechanical Engineering)

toc.pdf......Page 1
Handbook of HEATING, VENTILATION, and AIR CONDITIONING......Page 2
Dedication......Page 6
Preface......Page 7
Editor......Page 8
Contributors......Page 9
Table of Contents......Page 10
CH-01......Page 12
Commercial Buildings Disaggregated by Floor Space......Page 13
Table of Contents......Page 0
Commercial End-Use Consumption......Page 14
Commercial Energy Consumption and Intensity by Principal Building Activity (1995)......Page 15
1.1.2 Industrial Processes and Buildings......Page 16
Industrial Consumption by Fuel Type......Page 19
Residential Sector Overview......Page 21
1.2 What Follows......Page 22
References......Page 24
CH-02A......Page 25
2.1.1 Thermodynamics......Page 26
Conservation of Energy — The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 27
Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 29
Application of the Thermodynamic Laws to HVAC and Other Energy Conversion Systems......Page 30
Efficiencies of Thermodynamic Cycles......Page 31
Modified Rankine Cycles......Page 32
Advanced Thermodynamic Power Cycles......Page 38
Conduction Heat Transfer......Page 39
The Concept of Thermal Resistance......Page 40
Conduction Through Hollow Cylinders......Page 43
Convection Heat Transfer......Page 45
Natural-Convection Heat Transfer......Page 47
Forced-Convection Heat Transfer......Page 57
Extended Surfaces or Fins......Page 64
Radiation Heat Transfer......Page 66
Radiation Properties of Objects......Page 68
The Radiation Shape Factor (View Factor)......Page 70
2.1.3 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics......Page 77
Flow Characteristics......Page 78
Analysis of Flow Systems......Page 79
Heat-Exchanger Performance......Page 87
CH-02B......Page 89
Effectiveness-NTU Method......Page 95
Nomenclature......Page 97
Greek Symbols......Page 98
References......Page 99
2.2.1 Atmospheric Composition and Pressure......Page 101
2.2.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air......Page 102
2.2.3 Psychrometric Properties of Moist Air......Page 106
A. Sensible Heating and Cooling......Page 112
B. Cooling and Dehumidification......Page 113
C. Heating and Humidification......Page 115
D. Adiabatic Mixing of Air Streams......Page 116
Condition Line for a Space......Page 118
Cooling Coil Performance Calculations......Page 119
Psychrometrics of Single Zone Systems......Page 121
Thermal Balance of the Human Body......Page 124
Conditions for Thermal Comfort......Page 128
References......Page 131
CH-03......Page 133
3.1 Central and Distributed Utilities......Page 134
3.1.1 Management of Existing Fossil Plant Assets......Page 135
Pulverized-Coal-Fired Plants......Page 136
Sulfur Dioxide Removal......Page 137
Control of Nitrogen Oxides......Page 139
Aircraft Technology......Page 140
Humidified Air Power Plants......Page 142
3.1.5 Distributed Electrical Generation Basics......Page 143
Forces Propelling DR Today......Page 146
Fuel Cells......Page 147
Internal Combustion Engines......Page 148
Microturbines......Page 149
Solar Photovoltaics......Page 151
Need for New Interconnection Codes and Standards......Page 152
Utility Rates......Page 153
Performance Modeling......Page 154
Conclusions......Page 156
The Effect of Time on the Value of Money......Page 159
Discounting of Future Cash Flows......Page 163
Equivalent Cash Flows and Levelizing......Page 166
Discrete and Continuous Cash Flows......Page 171
The Rule of Seventy for Doubling Times......Page 172
Principal and Interest......Page 173
Depreciation and Tax Credit......Page 175
Demand Charge......Page 176
The Complete Formula......Page 177
Cost per Unit of Delivered Service......Page 180
Constant Currency Versus Inflating Currency......Page 181
Life Cycle Savings......Page 182
Internal Rate of Return......Page 183
Payback Time......Page 185
3.2.5 Complications of the Decision Process......Page 187
Capital Costs......Page 188
Maintenance and Energy......Page 189
3.2.7 Optimization......Page 191
Nomenclature......Page 193
References......Page 194
Appendix......Page 196
CH-04A......Page 198
4.1 Heating Systems......Page 199
Furnaces......Page 200
Furnace Design and Selection for HVAC Applications......Page 202
Furnace Efficiency and Energy Calculations......Page 203
Boiler Design and Selection for Buildings......Page 205
Auxiliary Steam Equipment......Page 207
Combustion Calculations — Flue Gas Analysis......Page 210
Boiler Efficiency and Energy Calculations......Page 212
4.1.3 Service Hot Water......Page 216
4.1.5 Electric Heat Pumps......Page 218
Typical Equipment Configurations......Page 219
Heat Pump Selection......Page 220
Part Load Performance......Page 222
4.1.6 Low Temperature Radiant Heating......Page 224
4.1.7 Solar Heating......Page 226
4.2 Air Conditioning Systems......Page 227
4.2.1 Vapor Compression Cycle......Page 228
4.2.2 Refrigerants Use and Selection......Page 229
4.2.3 Chilled Water Systems......Page 232
Overall System......Page 233
Vapor Compression Chillers......Page 234
Reciprocating Compressors......Page 236
Screw Compressors......Page 237
Centrifugal Compressors......Page 238
Absorption Chillers......Page 240
Expansion Valves......Page 245
Capacity Controls......Page 246
Absorption Chiller Controls......Page 247
Cooling Towers......Page 248
Cooling Tower Designs......Page 249
Materials......Page 250
Performance......Page 252
Applications......Page 253
Operation and Maintenance......Page 254
4.2.4 Packaged Equipment......Page 255
Vertical Packaged Units......Page 257
Air Source Heat Pumps......Page 258
Water Source Heat Pumps......Page 260
Geothermal Heat Pumps......Page 261
4.2.5 Evaporative Cooling......Page 262
REFERENCES......Page 263
4.3 Ventilation and Air Handling Systems......Page 265
Central System Advantages and Disadvantages......Page 266
Single or Dual Duct Systems......Page 267
Variable or Constant Air Volume Systems......Page 268
CH-04B......Page 269
System Design Considerations......Page 271
Filter Testing and Rating......Page 272
Air Humidification......Page 273
Evaporative Cooling......Page 274
Types and Configuration......Page 275
Coil Performance and Selection......Page 276
Centrifugal Fans......Page 279
Axial Flow Fans......Page 280
Fan Performance Curves......Page 281
Fan Laws......Page 282
System Effect......Page 283
Fan Selection......Page 284
Theory of Air Flow in Ducts......Page 285
Friction Losses......Page 286
Dynamic Losses......Page 287
Duct Air Leakage......Page 289
Duct Design Methods......Page 290
Variable Volume without Reheat......Page 291
Dual Duct Constant Volume......Page 292
Other Terminal Unit Variations......Page 293
Supply Air Diffusers......Page 295
Outlet Fixture Design Procedure......Page 296
Guidelines......Page 297
Return and Exhaust Air Grilles......Page 298
Control of the Major Components of Air Handling Systems......Page 299
Ventilation Control......Page 300
Control of Terminal Units......Page 301
Sequences of Operation for Air Handing Systems......Page 302
4.3.8 Secondary Air System Design......Page 303
Definition of Terms......Page 304
References......Page 305
4.4 Electrical Systems......Page 306
Alternating Current Systems......Page 307
Power Factor Improvement......Page 309
4.4.2 Electrical Motors......Page 310
Overview of Electrical Motors......Page 311
Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs)......Page 312
Energy Savings Calculations......Page 314
4.4.3 Lighting Systems......Page 316
High Efficiency Fluorescent Lamps......Page 317
Compact Fluorescent Lamps......Page 318
Lighting Controls......Page 319
Light Dimming Systems......Page 320
Transformers......Page 321
Electrical Wires......Page 324
Branch Circuit for Motors......Page 327
Protective Devices......Page 328
Circuit Breakers......Page 329
Design Requirements for HVAC Systems......Page 330
Step 3: Protective device with a disconnecting means......Page 331
Step 1: Motor load......Page 332
Step 1: Space requirements for motor starters......Page 333
Total Harmonic Distortion......Page 334
4.4.6 Summary......Page 337
References......Page 338
CH-05......Page 339
5.1 Control Fundamentals......Page 340
Overview of Control Systems......Page 341
Sensor and Process Characteristics......Page 342
5.1.1 Sensors......Page 343
Sensor Response......Page 344
Electronic Temperature Sensors......Page 345
Humidity Measurements......Page 348
Pressure Measurements......Page 349
Air Flow Measurements......Page 351
Radiation Sensors......Page 353
Electric and Electronic Actuators......Page 354
Pneumatic Actuators......Page 355
Steady State Operation......Page 356
Dynamic Response......Page 357
5.1.4 Feedback Loops......Page 358
The Control Loop......Page 359
Mathematical Representation of a Feedback Loop......Page 360
PID Control......Page 363
5.1.6 Stability of Feedback Loops......Page 366
5.1.7 Control Diagrams......Page 368
5.1.8 Control of Air Distribution Systems......Page 369
Air Temperature Control......Page 371
5.1.9 Control of Water Distribution Systems......Page 372
Water Temperature and Pressure Control......Page 374
5.1.10 Control of Chillers......Page 376
Thermal Energy Storage......Page 378
5.1.11 Control of Boilers and Steam Systems......Page 379
Building Warm-up/Cool-down......Page 381
5.1.12 Supervisory Control......Page 382
5.1.13 Advanced System Design Topics — Neural Networks for Commercial Building Controls......Page 383
References......Page 384
5.2 Intelligent Buildings......Page 385
5.2.1 Why Intelligent Buildings Are Needed — Demand and Benefits......Page 386
5.2.2 Intelligent Building Technologies......Page 389
Smart Windows......Page 390
Plug and Play Control Concepts......Page 391
Wireless Controls......Page 393
Automated Diagnostics in Intelligent Buildings......Page 394
Automated Real-Time Energy Purchasing Capabilities......Page 395
5.2.3 How to Prepare for IB Technologies......Page 396
References......Page 397
CH-06A......Page 399
6.1 Energy Calculations — Building Loads......Page 400
Data for Air Exchange......Page 401
Models for Air Leakage......Page 402
Pressure Terms......Page 406
LBL Model for Air Leakage......Page 411
Further Correlations for Building Components......Page 412
Design Conditions......Page 413
Building Heat Transmission Coefficient......Page 416
Heat Gains......Page 417
Heat Balance......Page 418
6.1.3 Storage Effects and Limits of Static Analysis......Page 420
6.1.4 Zones......Page 421
6.1.6 CLTD/CLF Method For Cooling Loads......Page 424
Basis of the Method......Page 431
Conductive Heat Gain......Page 432
The Load at Constant Temperature......Page 433
Variable Indoor Temperature and Heat Extraction Rate......Page 436
Roof CLTD Value Selection......Page 440
Solar Cooling Load......Page 441
Lighting Loads......Page 443
Appliance and Equipment Loads......Page 446
Air Infiltration......Page 448
Surface Conduction Heat Transfer......Page 449
6.1.9 Summary......Page 450
References......Page 451
Degree-Day Method......Page 452
Variable Base Degree-Day Method......Page 454
Bin and Modified Bin Methods......Page 456
DOE-2 and BLAST......Page 457
General Modeling Technique and Capabilities of the DOE-2 Program......Page 460
Weather Data for Hourly Simulations......Page 463
DOE-2 Building Input File......Page 465
DOE-2 Outputs......Page 466
Accuracy of the DOE-2 Program......Page 470
CH-06B......Page 476
Future Developments in Building Energy Calculation Methods......Page 477
6.2.3 Inverse Modeling......Page 479
Models Using One Independent Variable......Page 480
Dynamic Inverse Models — Neural Networks......Page 482
Neural Network Construction......Page 483
Neural Networks Applied to Buildings — Some Examples......Page 485
Evaluation of Energy Conservation Programs......Page 487
6.2.4 Hybrid Modeling......Page 488
6.2.6 How to Select an Approach......Page 489
References......Page 490
6.3.1 The Indoor Environment......Page 492
Indoor Air Quality......Page 493
Envelope Thermal Properties......Page 497
Above-Grade Opaque Surfaces......Page 498
Foundations and Basements......Page 502
Windows......Page 503
Mechanically Dominated Ventilation......Page 506
Infiltration......Page 507
Ventilative Cooling......Page 508
Measurement Methods......Page 509
6.3.2 Review of Thermal Distribution Systems......Page 511
Measurement Methods......Page 512
Residential Ducts......Page 513
Advanced Systems......Page 514
Air Flow and Air Quality Simulation Tools......Page 515
Window Thermal Analysis and Daylighting/Fenestration Tools......Page 516
Conclusion......Page 517
References......Page 518
Collector Types......Page 521
Description......Page 523
Modeling......Page 525
Incidence Angle Modifier......Page 528
Improvements to Flat-Plate Collector Performance......Page 529
Evacuated Tubular Collectors......Page 530
Effect of Day-to-Day Changes in Insolation......Page 531
Individual Hourly Utilizability......Page 533
Monthly Time Scales......Page 536
Annual Time Scales......Page 537
Standalone and Solar Supplemented Systems......Page 539
Active and Passive Systems......Page 540
Closed-Loop and Open-Loop Systems......Page 541
Description of a Typical Closed-Loop System......Page 542
Thermal Storage Systems......Page 545
Production Functions......Page 546
Classification......Page 547
Active Space Heating......Page 548
Domestic Water Heating......Page 549
Open-Loop Single-Pass Systems......Page 550
Design Recommendations......Page 552
References......Page 553
CH-07......Page 556
7.1 HVAC System Commissioning......Page 557
7.1.1 Commissioning New HVAC Systems......Page 558
The Commissioning Process......Page 559
Commissioning Authority......Page 561
Commissioning Resources......Page 562
Project Overview......Page 563
Role and Responsibilities of a Commissioning Agent......Page 564
Technical Issues......Page 565
Costs and Benefits of Commissioning on this Project......Page 566
Benefits of Commissioning Existing Buildings......Page 567
Investigation Phase......Page 568
Implementation Phase......Page 569
AHU Information Requirements......Page 570
CC Procedures......Page 571
CC Procedures......Page 572
CC Case Study — Texas Capitol Extension Building......Page 573
CC Measures Implemented......Page 574
Project Duration, Cost, and Savings......Page 575
7.1.5 Monitoring, Verification, and Commissioning......Page 576
Option A......Page 577
Option C......Page 578
Use of M&V Data for Diagnostics......Page 579
References......Page 580
Building Systems Diagnostics......Page 581
Definition of Terms......Page 582
Fault Detection......Page 583
Fault Diagnosis......Page 584
Decision on Course of Action......Page 585
7.2.4 Predictive Maintenance......Page 586
7.2.5 Benefits from FDD Applications and Predictive Maintenance......Page 588
Aeronautics, Nuclear, and Process Industry......Page 589
Building Systems......Page 590
Review of Literature Related to Building Systems Applications......Page 591
Cost vs. Benefits in Building Systems......Page 600
7.2.8 Selection of Methods for FDD Applications......Page 601
7.2.9 Detailed Descriptions of Three FDD Systems......Page 602
Problem Detection Approach......Page 603
Outdoor-Air/Economizer Diagnostician......Page 604
Detection and Diagnostic Methods......Page 605
Data Requirements......Page 606
Basic OAE Functionality......Page 607
Sensitivity vs. False Alarm......Page 608
Field Test Results......Page 609
Fault Detection......Page 610
Fault Diagnosis......Page 615
Fault Evaluation......Page 617
Steady State Detectors......Page 618
7.2.10 Application of Diagnostics Methods and Tools for Continuous Commissioning of Building Systems......Page 619
OAE Application in Commissioning......Page 620
Data-Gathering Tools......Page 622
Direct Estimation of Impacts Based on Measured Consumption......Page 623
Estimation of Impacts from First Principles......Page 624
Application of First Principles Method......Page 627
Ventilation Fault Impacts......Page 628
Lighting Fault Impacts......Page 629
HVAC Equipment Fault Impacts......Page 631
Integrating of Impacts Over Time......Page 633
7.2.13 The Future of Diagnostics in Buildings......Page 634
References......Page 635
Bibliography......Page 638
CH-08......Page 642
Appendices......Page 643
Symbols and Units:......Page 644
Symbols and Units:......Page 646
Symbols and Units:......Page 647
Part a. Temperature Table......Page 648
Part b. Pressure Table......Page 650
Symbols and Units:......Page 651
Part a. SI Units......Page 655
Part b. English Units......Page 656
Symbols and Units:......Page 658
Part a. SI Units......Page 659
Part b. English Units......Page 660
Appendix C Properties of Solids......Page 661
Part a. Pure Metals......Page 664
Appendix D Gases and Vapors......Page 665
Appendix E Composition and Heating Values of Common Fuels......Page 666