Handbook of farm, dairy, and food machinery engineering

Front Cover......Page 1
Handbook of Farm, Dairy and Food Machinery Engineering......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Contents......Page 8
Preface to the Second Edition......Page 16
Preface to the First Edition......Page 18
List of Contributors......Page 22
1. Nature of Work and Necessary Skills......Page 26
2. Academic and Industry Preparation......Page 27
3.1 Job Description Sample 1......Page 30
3.4.1 Food Engineering Research......Page 31
3.5 Job Description Sample 5......Page 32
5. Future Opportunities......Page 34
6. Conclusions......Page 35
Further reading......Page 37
1. Background......Page 38
2. Federal Register......Page 39
4. United States Code......Page 40
6.1.1 Sanitation Performance Standards......Page 41
6.1.2 Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures (SSOPs)......Page 42
7. FDA Sanitation Programs......Page 43
8.1 Prevention......Page 45
8.3 Response......Page 46
9. Hazard Analyses and Critical Control Point Program (HACCP)......Page 47
9.1 Prerequisite Programs......Page 48
10. Meat Processing......Page 49
11. Shell Eggs......Page 51
12. Seafood Processing......Page 52
13. Fruits, Vegetables, and Nuts......Page 54
14.2 Carbonated Beverages......Page 55
14.3 Bottled Water......Page 56
14.5 Milk and Milk Products......Page 57
14.6 Pasteurization......Page 58
15. Canned Foods......Page 59
17. Export Foods......Page 60
18. Imported Foods......Page 62
20. Acronyms......Page 63
References......Page 64
1. Introduction......Page 68
2.1.1 High-Pressure Processing......Page 69
2.1.2 Pulsed Electric Field Processing......Page 70
2.1.4 Ultraviolet Disinfection......Page 72
2.2.1 Ozone......Page 73
2.2.2 Other Chemical Interventions......Page 74
2.3 Hurdle Approach......Page 76
3.2 Molecular and Immunological Assays Methods......Page 77
3.2.3 ELISA......Page 78
3.3 Biosensors......Page 79
3.4 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry......Page 80
4.1 Active Packaging......Page 82
5. Tracking and Traceability......Page 83
6. Byproducts of Processing......Page 84
6.2 3-MCPD......Page 85
References......Page 86
1. Introduction......Page 92
2. Vehicle Guidance......Page 93
2.1.1 Manual Vehicle Guidance......Page 96
2.1.2 Operator-Assisted Vehicle Guidance......Page 97
2.1.3 Semi-Autonomous Vehicle Guidance......Page 98
2.1.4 Fully Autonomous Vehicle Guidance......Page 99
4. Guidance Methods......Page 100
4.1 GPS......Page 101
4.2 Machine Vision......Page 103
4.3 Dead Reckoning......Page 104
4.6 Furrow Following......Page 105
5.1 Safety......Page 106
6. Summary......Page 108
References......Page 109
Other Contacts......Page 110
1. Opener Design Options......Page 112
2. Managing Crop Residue......Page 114
3. Soil Disturbance and Environmental Impacts......Page 118
4. Seed/Fertilizer Placement, Row Spacing......Page 119
5. Depth Control and Packing......Page 122
6. Varying Conditions......Page 123
7. Precision Agriculture......Page 124
Further reading......Page 126
2. History......Page 128
3. Pre-Harvest Issues that Affect Machine Design......Page 129
4. Performance Factors......Page 130
5. Heads: Grain Platforms, Corn Heads, and Strippers......Page 131
7. Cylinder or Rotor and Concave......Page 134
8. Separation: Straw Walkers or Rotary Separation......Page 137
9. Cleaning Shoe......Page 139
11. Grain Bin and Unloading Auger......Page 141
13. Operator’s Station, Adjustments, and Monitoring Systems......Page 143
14. Field Performance......Page 144
16. Combine Trends......Page 145
References......Page 146
7 Grain Storage Systems Design......Page 148
1.1 Physical Properties of Agricultural Grains......Page 149
1.2 Management Factors......Page 150
2.1 Purpose of Drying......Page 151
2.2 Classification of Dryer Types......Page 152
2.3 Theory and Simulation of Drying......Page 154
3. Structural Loads......Page 157
3.1 Loads Caused by the Grain......Page 159
3.2 Eccentric Discharging of Grain from a Bin......Page 160
3.4 Stresses in Granular Materials......Page 161
3.5 Temperature Cables......Page 162
3.6 Thermal Loads and Moisture Induced Loads......Page 163
3.8 Flat Storage......Page 164
3.9 Janssen’s Equation......Page 167
3.10 Flat Storage, Shallow and Deep Bins......Page 169
3.11 Loads on Hoppers......Page 171
3.12 Snow and Wind Loads......Page 173
3.13 Seismic Loads......Page 176
4. Grain Handling......Page 178
4.1 Screw Conveyors......Page 179
4.2 Belt Conveyors......Page 181
4.3 Bucket Elevators......Page 183
4.4 Pneumatic Conveyors......Page 186
4.6 Grain Cleaning......Page 188
5. Testers for Measuring Flow Properties......Page 190
5.2 Examples of Flow Testers......Page 191
5.3 Modeling of Granular Materials......Page 194
References......Page 196
1. Introduction......Page 202
2. The Milking Machine......Page 203
2.1 Milking Unit......Page 204
2.2.1 Milklines......Page 207
2.2.4 Distribution Tank or Interceptor......Page 211
2.3.1 Vacuum Pumps......Page 212
2.3.3 Vacuum Gauge......Page 213
3. Milking Parlors......Page 214
3.1 Milking Parlor Construction Methods......Page 216
3.3.1 Herringbone......Page 217
3.3.3 Para-Bone/Swing-Over......Page 218
3.3.5 Side Open or Tandem......Page 219
3.3.6 Flat......Page 220
3.4.3 Automatic Cluster Removers......Page 221
References......Page 222
1. Introduction......Page 224
2. Clarification, Separation, and Standardization......Page 225
3. Pasteurization......Page 227
4. UHT Sterilization......Page 233
5. Homogenization......Page 234
6. Membrane Processing......Page 236
7. Evaporation......Page 237
8. Drying......Page 238
9. Ice Cream Manufacturing Equipment......Page 241
10. Butter Manufacturing Equipment......Page 243
11. Cheese Manufacturing Equipment......Page 244
References......Page 245
1.1 On-Farm Drying......Page 248
1.1.1 Combined Conduction–Convection Heating Rotary Dryer......Page 249
1.2 Fluidized Bed Dryers......Page 251
2.1 Grain Damage from Insects......Page 253
2.1.2 Heat Treatment......Page 254
2.1.4.1 Low Oxygen Atmosphere......Page 255
2.1.4.2 High Carbon Dioxide......Page 256
2.1.5 Pressurized Carbon Dioxide......Page 257
3.1 Artificial Aging......Page 258
3.2 Design and Development of the Steam Chamber......Page 260
3.3.1 Production of ACPY......Page 262
3.3.2 Aroma Enhancement of Milled Rice......Page 263
4.1 Retort Packaging......Page 264
4.1.3 Boiling Process......Page 265
4.1.5 Retorting System......Page 266
4.2 Quick Cooking Brown Rice......Page 267
4.2.1 Quick Cooking Rice Process......Page 268
4.2.2.2 Soaking......Page 270
5.1 Image Analysis......Page 271
5.2 Texture Evaluation of Cooked Rice......Page 272
5.2.1 Objective Measurement of Cooked Rice Texture......Page 273
5.2.1.1 Application of NIR Spectroscopy on Grain Quality......Page 274
5.2.1.2 Rapid Variety Identification of Rough Rice by NIR Spectroscopy......Page 275
References......Page 276
1.2 Importance of Fruit and Vegetables......Page 284
1.5.1 Small-Scale Processing......Page 285
2.1 General Background......Page 286
2.2 Fruit Development......Page 287
2.3.3 Organic Acids......Page 288
2.3.5 Phenolic Components......Page 289
2.3.7 Plant Pigments......Page 290
2.3.10 Vitamins......Page 292
2.3.13 Other Components......Page 293
3. Biological Deterioration and Control......Page 294
4.1 Physical Methods of Reducing Deterioration......Page 297
4.2.2 Disinfestation Treatments......Page 299
5.1 Storage of Fresh Produce......Page 300
5.3.1 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)......Page 301
5.4 Preservation by Acidification......Page 302
5.6 Preservation by Heat......Page 305
5.7 Food Irradiation......Page 306
6.1 Canning......Page 307
6.2 Dehydration......Page 308
6.4 Semi-Processing......Page 309
6.5 Sugar Preserved Products......Page 310
6.6 Juice Processing......Page 311
6.6.1 Mechanical Pressing......Page 312
6.6.2 Clarification of Juice......Page 314
6.6.4 Enzyme Liquefaction......Page 315
6.6.5 Diffusion Treatment......Page 316
6.7.3 Composition of Dried Cacao Bean......Page 317
6.7.6 Fermentation......Page 318
6.7.10 Chocolate......Page 320
6.7.14 Tempering Process......Page 322
6.8.1 Minimal Processing......Page 323
7. Quality Control/Assurance......Page 326
8.1 Preliminary Studies......Page 328
8.2.1 Installation and Operation of a Processing Facility......Page 329
8.2.4 Reception of Raw Material......Page 330
8.2.7 Storeroom for Ingredients and Finished Products......Page 332
8.3 Equipment Specifications for Processing of Horticultural Crops......Page 333
References......Page 334
2. Water in Foods......Page 342
3. Types of Water in Foods......Page 344
4. Food Stability and Moisture Relationships......Page 346
5. Drying: Describing the Process......Page 348
5.1 Psychrometrics......Page 349
5.2 Drying Curves and Mechanisms of Drying......Page 350
6.1 Hot Air Dryers......Page 354
6.2 Sun or Solar Drying......Page 355
6.4 Rotary Dryers......Page 356
6.5 Vacuum Dryers......Page 357
6.6 Tunnel Dryers......Page 358
6.9 Impingement Dryers......Page 359
6.10 Puff Drying......Page 360
6.12 Spray Drying......Page 361
6.13 Osmotic Drying......Page 363
6.14 Freeze Drying......Page 364
7. Quality Changes During Drying......Page 365
8. Evaporation......Page 367
9.1 Pan and Batch Evaporators......Page 369
10.2 Rising Film Evaporator......Page 370
10.4 Rising–Falling Film Evaporator......Page 371
10.5 Agitated Film Evaporator......Page 372
11. Single Effect Evaporators......Page 373
12. Multi-Effect Evaporators......Page 375
13. Mechanical Vapor Recompression......Page 376
15. Conclusion......Page 377
Further reading......Page 378
1. Introduction......Page 380
3. Freezing Process......Page 381
4. Phase Change and Ice Crystal Formation......Page 384
5. Product Heat Load......Page 385
6. Freezing Time Estimations......Page 386
6.2 Factors Affecting Freezing Time......Page 387
6.3 Plank’s Equation Modified......Page 388
7. Freezing Equipment......Page 389
7.1.1 Plate Freezers......Page 390
7.2.2 Air Blast Tunnel......Page 392
7.2.3 Belt Freezer......Page 393
7.2.4 Fluidized Bed Freezer......Page 394
7.3.1 Immersion Type......Page 395
7.3.2 Cryogenic Freezers......Page 396
8.1 Effect of Freezing on Food Physical Properties......Page 397
8.2 Effect of Freezing on Food Constituents......Page 398
8.3 Effect of Freezing on Food Thermal Properties......Page 399
9.2 Dehydrofreezing......Page 400
11. Scope for Future Work......Page 401
References......Page 402
1. Basic Concepts of Heat and Mass Transfer......Page 404
1.1 Conduction Heat Transfer......Page 406
1.3 Free Convection Heat Transfer......Page 407
1.5 Mass Diffusion......Page 408
2. Case Study 1: Thermal Sterilization using Computational Fluid Dynamics......Page 409
2.1 Simulations of Thermal Sterilization in a Vertical can......Page 411
2.3 Simulation of Vitamin Destruction during Sterilization......Page 412
2.5 Simulation of a 3-D Pouch during Sterilization......Page 413
3. Case Study 2: New Approach to the Analysis of Heat and Mass Transfer in Drying and Frying......Page 414
4. Case Study 3: Microwave Thawing of Frozen Meat......Page 418
4.1 Theoretical Analysis......Page 419
Nomenclature......Page 422
References......Page 425
2.1 Stress and Strain......Page 428
2.2 Constitutive Relations and Classification of Materials......Page 430
2.3 The Importance of Timescale of Deformation, Deborah Number......Page 431
3.1 Shear Strain Rates in a Laminar Flow......Page 432
3.3 Rheological Models for Fluids......Page 433
3.3.1 Newtonian Fluids (σo=0, n=1, K=μ)......Page 434
3.3.5 Rheological Behavior Correlated with Structure......Page 435
3.4.1 Vane Method Used to Determine Yield Stress......Page 436
3.4.2 Rotational Rheometry......Page 437
3.4.2.2 Cone and Plate......Page 438
4. Rheology of Semi-Solid Materials......Page 439
4.1.1 Principles of Measuring Viscoelastic Properties Using Oscillation......Page 440
4.1.2.1 Strain Amplitude......Page 442
4.1.2.3 Frequency Sweep......Page 443
4.2 Stress Relaxation Tests......Page 445
4.3 Creep Tests......Page 446
5. Interfacial Rheology......Page 447
5.1 Interfacial Dilatational Rheology......Page 448
5.2 Interfacial Shear Rheology......Page 449
References......Page 450
16 Food Extruders......Page 452
1. Role of an Extruder......Page 454
2.2 Preconditioner......Page 455
3. Types of Extruders......Page 456
3.1 Single, Segmented Screw Extruders......Page 457
3.3 Interrupted Flight Extruders......Page 458
3.5 Twin Screw Extruders......Page 461
References......Page 464
Further reading......Page 465
2. Retort Systems......Page 466
2.1 Batch Retorts......Page 467
2.2.1 Crateless Retorts......Page 470
2.2.2 Continuous Rotary Cookers......Page 471
2.2.3 Hydrostatic Sterilizers......Page 473
2.2.4 Flash “18”......Page 475
2.2.5 Steriflamme System......Page 478
3. Automated Materials Handling Systems......Page 479
4. Aseptic Process Equipment Systems......Page 482
5. Low-Acid Canned Food Regulations......Page 484
References......Page 491
1. Basics......Page 492
2. Examples......Page 493
3. Meatball Cooking Example in Detail......Page 494
3.1 Neural Network Model......Page 495
3.3 Hidden Layers and Nodes......Page 496
References......Page 497
2. Benefits of Automation......Page 500
3. Computer Integrated Manufacturing......Page 501
4. Automation Components and Terminology......Page 503
5. Control System Objectives......Page 505
5.1 Discrete Control......Page 506
5.3 Block Diagrams......Page 509
5.4 Closed Loop Systems......Page 510
5.5.1 Proportional Control Action......Page 512
5.5.2 Integral Control Action......Page 514
5.5.3 Derivative Control Action......Page 515
5.6 Open Loop Control Systems......Page 516
5.7 Predictive Control......Page 517
6. Controllers......Page 518
6.1 Processor......Page 519
6.3 Power supply......Page 520
6.5 Chassis......Page 521
6.6 Programming Device......Page 522
6.7 Controller Programming......Page 523
6.8 HMI—Human-Machine-Interface......Page 525
7. Sensor Fundamentals......Page 527
7.2 Accuracy and Precision......Page 528
7.3 Sensor Dynamics......Page 529
7.6 Linearity......Page 530
7.8 Specification of Sensors......Page 531
7.9.1 Switch Inputs......Page 532
7.9.3 Toggle Switch......Page 533
7.9.4 Proximity Switch......Page 534
7.9.6 Encoder/Programmable Limit Switch......Page 535
7.9.10 Temperature......Page 536
7.9.12 Thermocouples......Page 537
7.9.13 Resistance Temperature Device (RTD)......Page 539
7.9.15 Integrated Circuits......Page 540
7.9.17 Pressure......Page 541
7.9.17.1 Resistive......Page 542
7.9.18 Level......Page 543
7.9.19.2 Conductivity/Capacitance Probes......Page 544
7.9.20.1 Reflective Methods......Page 545
7.9.20.3 RADAR......Page 546
7.9.20.5 Capacitance......Page 547
7.9.21 Flow......Page 548
7.9.21.1 Magnetic Flow Meter (commonly called a “Mag” meter)......Page 549
7.9.21.2 Vortex Shedding Flow Meter......Page 550
7.9.21.4 Ultrasonic......Page 551
7.9.21.5 Differential Pressure......Page 552
7.10.1 Sensor Transmitters......Page 553
8.1 Motors......Page 556
8.2 Pumps......Page 557
8.3.1 Linear Stem Control Valves......Page 558
8.4.1 Valve Actuator......Page 559
8.4.1.2 Failure Mode......Page 561
8.4.2.3 Materials......Page 562
8.4.2.4 Dynamic Flow Behavior......Page 563
Further Reading......Page 565
1. Introduction......Page 566
2. Conventional Thermal Methods for the Preservation of Meats......Page 568
3.2 Mechanism of Ohmic Heating......Page 569
3.3.2.1 Temperature vs. Electrical Conductivity......Page 571
3.3.2.2.1 Meat Ingredients......Page 572
Fat......Page 573
3.3.2.2.2 Non-Meat Ingredients......Page 574
3.3.2.3 Size reduction vs. Electrical Conductivity......Page 575
3.3.2.3.2 Non-Comminuted Meat......Page 576
4. Microbial Inactivation during Ohmic Heating......Page 577
5. Quality of Ohmically Heated Meat Products......Page 578
6. Economics of Ohmic Processing......Page 582
6.2 Product Yield......Page 583
7.1.2 Control of the Extent of Pasteurization/Cooking......Page 584
7.3 Possible Methods for Commercial Application of Ohmic Heating to Meat......Page 585
7.4 Other Design Considerations......Page 586
7.5.1 Defrosting of Meat and Fish......Page 587
Acknowledgements......Page 589
References......Page 590
2. Background......Page 596
3. Key Facility Issues......Page 597
3.1 Cross-Cutting Issues......Page 600
3.2 Interacting Issues......Page 602
3.3 Individual Issues......Page 603
4. Project Phases......Page 604
4.1 Drawings......Page 605
4.2 Planning......Page 610
4.2.1 Cross-Cutting and Multicategory Issues......Page 611
4.2.2 Product......Page 613
4.2.4 Design......Page 615
4.4 Preliminary Design......Page 617
4.5 Final Design......Page 618
4.7 Startup......Page 619
References......Page 620
1. Introduction......Page 624
3.1 Centrifugal......Page 625
3.3 Jet and Airlift......Page 627
4. Selecting Sanitary Pump Type......Page 629
4.1 Process Requirements......Page 631
4.2 Product Properties......Page 633
4.3 Operational Requirements......Page 635
4.4 Cost......Page 637
4.5 Safety......Page 638
5. Installation......Page 639
6. Cleaning and Maintenance......Page 640
References......Page 642
1. Introduction......Page 644
2.5 Aerated Lagoons......Page 646
2.11 Trickling Filters......Page 647
3. Characteristics of Wastes and Treatment Types......Page 648
3.1 Dairy Processing Waste......Page 649
3.2 Meat, Poultry, and Seafood Processing Waste......Page 651
3.4 Brewery and Distillery Waste......Page 652
4.1 Screening......Page 653
4.2.1 Discrete Particle Sedimentation (Type 1)......Page 654
4.3.1 Dissolved Air Flotation......Page 655
4.4 Filtration......Page 656
4.4.4 Mixed Media Filters......Page 657
4.5.2 Flocculators......Page 658
4.7 Disinfection......Page 659
4.7.1 Chlorination......Page 660
4.7.3 Ultraviolet Radiation......Page 661
4.8 Carbon Adsorption......Page 662
4.10.1 Ultrafiltration......Page 663
5.1 Aerobic Processes......Page 664
5.1.2 Microbiology......Page 665
5.1.5 Rotating Biological Reactors......Page 666
5.1.7 Anaerobic Processes......Page 667
5.1.9 Acidogenesis......Page 669
5.1.11 Anaerobic Reactor Designs......Page 670
5.1.13 Induced Blanket Reactor (IBR)......Page 671
5.1.15 Anaerobic Contact Reactor......Page 673
5.2 Composting Processes......Page 674
6.1 Land Application......Page 675
6.2 Landfilling......Page 676
7. Bioprocess Technology from Waste......Page 677
7.2 Bio-Energy Recovery......Page 678
7.2.3 Hydrogen Recovery......Page 679
7.4 Chemical Production......Page 682
8. Conclusions......Page 684
References......Page 687
Further reading......Page 691
1.2 Protection......Page 692
1.4 Utility......Page 693
3.1 Piston Fillers......Page 695
3.2 Diaphragm Fillers......Page 696
3.3 Timed Flow Fillers......Page 697
4. Weight Filling......Page 698
4.2 Gross Weight Fillers......Page 699
5.2 Rotary Fillers......Page 701
6. Cap Application Machines......Page 702
6.3 Roller Type Press-On Cappers......Page 704
7. Induction Cap Sealing......Page 705
9. Form–Fill–Seal Equipment......Page 706
9.1 Vertical Form–Fill–Seal Equipment......Page 707
9.2 Horizontal Form–Fill–Seal Equipment......Page 708
10. Canning Machinery......Page 709
11.1 Carton Filling......Page 712
12.1 Typical Metal Detectors......Page 714
2. Functions of Packaging......Page 716
2.1 Containment......Page 717
2.2 Protection......Page 718
2.4 Utility......Page 719
3.1 Meats......Page 721
3.2 Seafood......Page 722
3.3.1 CCF......Page 724
3.4 Processed versus Non-Processed......Page 726
4.2 Packing......Page 727
4.3 Shipping......Page 728
5.2 Biochemical......Page 729
6. Packaging Materials......Page 730
6.1 Paper......Page 731
6.2 Plastic......Page 732
6.3 Metal......Page 734
6.4 Glass......Page 735
7.1 Active Packaging......Page 736
7.4 Intelligent Packaging......Page 737
8.1 Food Packaging Trends......Page 738
8.2 Damage Reduction Trends......Page 742
References......Page 744
Index......Page 746