Handbook of Engineering Practice of Materials and Corrosion

Preface
Preview
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Contents
Abbreviations
Standard Terminology and Acronyms
Definitions and Comparisons
Chapter 1: Design Engineering
	1.1 General
		1.1.1 Types and Procedure of Engineering
			1.1.1.1 Types and Steps of Engineering Work
			1.1.1.2 Details of Major Engineering Steps
		1.1.2 Consideration Prior to Design
			1.1.2.1 BEDD (Basic Engineering Design Data)
			1.1.2.2 DPDT (design pressure-design temperature) and MDMT (minimum design metal temperature)
			1.1.2.3 Design and selection for detail components
			1.1.2.4 Transportation, erection, and field assembly with international and local regulation
			1.1.2.5 Comprehension of general assembly/notes drawing - traceable for construction, maintenance, and future argument
			1.1.2.6 Characteristics of requirements of code and specification - Tables 1.2 and 1.3
		1.1.3 History, Governing, Updating, and Interpreting of ASME
			1.1.3.1 History
			1.1.3.2 Updating and Interpreting the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Codes (BPVC)
			1.1.3.3 Boiler and Pressure Vessels Laws of USA (Courtesy of the Uniform BPV Laws Society)
			1.1.3.4 ASME Standard Base/Filler Materials - Source: http://www.wermac.org/societies/asme_astm.html
		1.1.4 Contents of ASME
		1.1.5 Scope of Application in ASME
			1.1.5.1 Major Applicable Scopes in ASME Sec. VIII and B31.3
			1.1.5.2 Applicable Scopes of ASME - API
			1.1.5.3 Pressure Retaining Parts and Pressure Boundary Applied in ASME
			1.1.5.4 Years of Acceptable Editions of Referenced Standards in ASME
		1.1.6 Limitations and Requirements for Wall Thickness
			1.1.6.1 Minimum Thickness Requirements
			1.1.6.2 Maximum Thickness Requirements
		1.1.7 ASME Code Stamps
		1.1.8 Check List for Materials in ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1
		1.1.9 Categorization of Services in Codes
			1.1.9.1 General Categorization
			1.1.9.2 Lethal Services
			1.1.9.3 Environmentally Assisted Cracking (EAC) Services
			1.1.9.4 Unfired Steam
			1.1.9.5 Cyclic Service
		1.1.10 Properties of Materials
			1.1.10.1 Mechanical Properties
			1.1.10.2 Metallurgical Properties
			1.1.10.3 Physical Properties
			1.1.10.4 Tracking Numbering System of Base Metal
		1.1.11 Minimum Design Metal Temperature (MDMT) and Design Minimum Temperature (DMT)
			1.1.11.1 MDMT Decision of Pressure Vessels Designed as per ASME Section VIII (Recommendation)
			1.1.11.2 DMT of Piping Systems and Components Designed as per ASME B31.3
			1.1.11.3 MDMT (or DMT) of Nonpressure Components (Recommendation)
			1.1.11.4 DMT of Structural Steel
		1.1.12 Nominal Thickness and Governing Thickness (GT)
			1.1.12.1 ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1
			1.1.12.2 ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 2
			1.1.12.3 ASME B31.3
		1.1.13 Guidelines on the Approval of New Materials Unregistered in the ASME BPVC
		1.1.14 Guidelines on Multiple Marking of Materials in the ASME BPVC
	1.2 Conventional Design
		1.2.1 Elastic Design and Plastic Design
			1.2.1.1 Elastic Design (Plane-Stress Design)
			1.2.1.2 Plastic Design (Plane-Strain Design)
			1.2.1.3 Elastic and Plastic Design (Plane-Stress and Strain Design)
		1.2.2 Equipment Life Time (See Table 1.35)
		1.2.3 Stresses for Design
			1.2.3.1 Comprehension of Stress-Strain Curve
			1.2.3.2 Classes of Stresses for Some Typical Cases in ASME (See Table 1.36)
			1.2.3.3 Primary Stress
			1.2.3.4 Secondary Stresses
			1.2.3.5 Peak Stresses
			1.2.3.6 Discontinuity Stresses
			1.2.3.7 Shear Stress, τ
			1.2.3.8 Stress Values in ASME Sec. II, Part D - See Table 1.37
			1.2.3.9 Allowable Stresses of Low Temperature Service Metals in ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1
			1.2.3.10 Criteria for Establishing Allowable Stress Values (Tables 1.38, 1.39, 1.40, 1.41, 1.42, 1.43, and 1.44)
			1.2.3.11 Allowable Stresses in ASME B31.3 (Similar in Other B31.xx Series)
			1.2.3.12 Allowable Variations in Elevated Temperature Service (See ASME B31.3 Appendix V as well)
		1.2.4 Strength Calculation
			1.2.4.1 Requirements of Strength Calculation in ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1, TEMA, API, and Others (Table 1.46)
			1.2.4.2 Circumferential (Hoop) Stress (R/t  10) and Longitudinal (Axial or Meriodic) Stress (Table 1.47)
			1.2.4.3 Effect of Thick and Thin Thickness in Internal Pressure (Table 1.48)
			1.2.4.4 Equations for Pressure Vessels under Internal Pressure in ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1 (Courtesy of Pressure Vessel Handbook...
		1.2.5 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP) and Maximum Allowable Pressure (MAP)
			1.2.5.1 MAWP (Maximum Allowable Working Pressure)
			1.2.5.2 MAP (Maximum Allowable Pressure) in ASME
		1.2.6 Design Factors and Pressure Vessel Classes
			1.2.6.1 Allowable Stresses Calculated at Room Temperature: Depends on the Design Factor of Each Code (Table 1.51).
			1.2.6.2 Pressure Vessel Classes and Design Factor of ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 2 (Table 1.52)
		1.2.7 Joint Efficiency and Quality Factor
			1.2.7.1 Joint Efficiency
			1.2.7.2 Casting Quality Factor (Ec) in ASME B31.3, 303.3.2, 302.3.3, K302.3.3, and Table A-1A
		1.2.8 Pressure Relief Devices (PRD)
		1.2.9 Design and Selection for Detail Components
		1.2.10 Transportation, Erection, and Field Assembly
		1.2.11 Comprehension of General Assembly/Notes Drawing
		1.2.12 Development of Piping Materials Classes
			1.2.12.1 Piping Material Engineer´s Responsibilities
			1.2.12.2 Development of the Project Piping Classes
	1.3 Advanced Design
		1.3.1 Stress Analysis and Finite Element Analysis (FEA)
			1.3.1.1 WRC 107/ WRC 537
			1.3.1.2 WRC 297
			1.3.1.3 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) - Courtesy J.W. Jones, FEA of Pressure Vessels, NBIC
		1.3.2 Fatigue Analysis
			1.3.2.1 Fatigue Analysis for Pressure Vessels
			1.3.2.2 Fatigue Analysis for Piping, Pipelines, and Risers
		1.3.3 Creep and Rupture Requirements Including Compressive Stress Rules
			1.3.3.1 Characteristics in High Temperature - Creep and Rupture (Fig. 1.34)
			1.3.3.2 Creep-Rupture Stress
			1.3.3.3 Development History of Creep-Rupture Resistance Metals
			1.3.3.4 Weld Joint Strength Reduction at Elevated Temperature
			1.3.3.5 Maximum Metal Temperature for Compressive Stress Rules
		1.3.4 Fracture Toughness
			1.3.4.1 Three Failure Modes
			1.3.4.2 Stress Intensity Factor (K) and Crack Tip Stresses
			1.3.4.3 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) and Elastic Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM)
			1.3.4.4 Stress Intensity Factor in Practice
			1.3.4.5 Stress Intensity Factor and Fracture Toughness
			1.3.4.6 Fracture Toughness Estimation from Charpy V-Notch Data
			1.3.4.7 Test Methods for Failure Assessment and ASTM Standards
		1.3.5 Minimum Allowable Temperature (MAT) and Lowest Metal Temperature (LMT)
			1.3.5.1 Minimum Allowable Temperature (MAT)
			1.3.5.2 Lowest Metal Temperature (LMT)
		1.3.6 MPT (Minimum Pressurizing Temperature)
			1.3.6.1 What Is MPT?
			1.3.6.2 Key Considerations for MPT Decision
			1.3.6.3 Requirements of MPT Curve
			1.3.6.4 Vendor Data Requirements
			1.3.6.5 General Guidelines for Application of MPT Curves in Operations
	1.4 Standardization and Documentations
		1.4.1 Principal Engineering Execution Documents (PEED) for Facilities in PDP, FEED, EPC, and Operation
		1.4.2 Basic Documents for Materials and Corrosion
			1.4.2.1 Design Stage
			1.4.2.2 Operation and Maintenance Stage
		1.4.3 Piping Materials Classes
		1.4.4 Units of Dimension and Measurement
		1.4.5 Description and Locations of Major Activities in ASME
	1.5 Maintenance, Reliability, and Integrity
	1.6 Reiterative Engineering Mistakes
		1.6.1 Pressure
		1.6.2 Temperature
		1.6.3 Weight and Volume
		1.6.4 Minimum, Maximum, and Average: ( ) for Example
		1.6.5 Shall, Should, May, and Can
		1.6.6 Applicable Standards and Reference Standards
Chapter 2: Types and Requirements of Materials and Corrosion
	2.1 Characteristics and Requirements of Raw Materials
		2.1.1 Classes and Properties of Materials
			2.1.1.1 Classes of Materials (Table 2.1)
			2.1.1.2 Classes and Terminology of Metals
			2.1.1.3 Ferrous Base Metal (ASME SAxxx or ASTM Axxx)
			2.1.1.4 Effects of each Chemical Component in Ferritic Steels
			2.1.1.5 Commercial Metals
			2.1.1.6 European Steel Names and Designations
			2.1.1.7 UNS and AISI/SAE Numbering System
			2.1.1.8 Locations of Materials Data in ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1 and Sec. II (Table 2.13)
			2.1.1.9 Temperature Limitation of Metal for Pressure Component (Typical)
			2.1.1.10 Temperature Limitation in Use of Metals in Several Codes and Standards
			2.1.1.11 Permitted Variations of Chemical Requirements
			2.1.1.12 Grain Size in the Microstructure of Metal
		2.1.2 Forging Materials - Source: FIA (Forging Industry Association) and ASTM STG 903
		2.1.3 Cast Iron, Ductile Iron, and Hot Isostatic Processing (HIP) Castings
			2.1.3.1 Comparison of Cast Iron and Cast Steel
			2.1.3.2 Types of Cast Irons
			2.1.3.3 Cast Steels - ASTM A148, A216, A352, A356, A660-Cast Steels), A957-Investment Castings
			2.1.3.4 Materials Requirements for Casting Components
			2.1.3.5 Typical Mechanical Properties of Cast Irons (Table 2.26)
			2.1.3.6 Hot Isostatic Processing (HIP) Castings
		2.1.4 Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels
			2.1.4.1 Carbon Steels
			2.1.4.2 Low-Alloy Steels (Max. 3%Cr-Mo Steels)
			2.1.4.3 Low-Alloy Steels (5-9%Cr-Mo Steels)
			2.1.4.4 Low-Alloy Steels - Ni Steels for Low-Temperature Service - See Div. 1 ULT and Table 2.120 in this book
			2.1.4.5 High-Manganese (24-27%Mn) Austenitic Steels for Low/Cryogenic Temperature Service
			2.1.4.6 Ferritic Steels with Tensile Properties Enhanced by Heat Treatment
			2.1.4.7 Thermo-Mechanical Controlled Process (TMCP) Steel
			2.1.4.8 Normalizing-Accelerated Cooling and Tempering (NACT) Steel
			2.1.4.9 Quenched-Tempered (Q-T) and Quenched-Self Tempered (QST) Steels
		2.1.5 High-Alloy (Stainless) Steels
			2.1.5.1 Major Demands of Stainless Steels
			2.1.5.2 Definition of Stainless Steel
			2.1.5.3 General Classes of Stainless Steels
			2.1.5.4 Characteristics of Elements in Stainless Steels
			2.1.5.5 Types and Characteristics of Stainless Steels
		2.1.6 Frailties of Stainless Steels
			2.1.6.1 Solidification Cracking (Hot Crack) and Delta Ferrite Effect of ASS and DSS
			2.1.6.2 Chloride Corrosion Pitting, Crevice and Stress Corrosion Crack (SCC) of Stainless Steels
			2.1.6.3 Sensitization and Intergranular Corrosion Cracking/Attack (IGC), Weld Decay, and Knife Line Attack
			2.1.6.4 475 C (885 F) Embrittlement of Stainless Steels
			2.1.6.5 Intermetallic Precipitation - Sigma, Chi, and Laves Phase Embrittlement
			2.1.6.6 Zinc Embrittlement (as a Liquid Metal Embrittlement, LME) of Stainless Steels
			2.1.6.7 Alkaline Stress Corrosion Cracking (Alkaline SCC)
			2.1.6.8 Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking (PTASCC)
			2.1.6.9 Stress Relaxation Cracking-SRC (Reheat Cracking) of Austenitic Stainless Steels (ASS)
			2.1.6.10 Galvanic Corrosion of/by Stainless Steels (Typically as an Attacker)
			2.1.6.11 Heat Tint of Austenitic Stainless Steels (ASS)
			2.1.6.12 Strain (or Deformation)-Induced Martensite and Permeability of Stainless Steels after Cold Work
			2.1.6.13 Iron Contamination of Stainless Steels
		2.1.7 Nonferrous Alloy Metals (SB) - Ni/Cu/Al/Ti/Zr/Ta/W Alloys
			2.1.7.1 Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloys
			2.1.7.2 Copper and Copper-Based Alloys
			2.1.7.3 Aluminum Alloys
			2.1.7.4 Titanium Alloys
			2.1.7.5 Zirconium Alloys
			2.1.7.6 Tantalum Alloys
			2.1.7.7 Hardfacing Alloys (Table 2.89)
		2.1.8 Bonding of Metals
			2.1.8.1 Metal-Clad Types Allowed by Codes
			2.1.8.2 Classes of Clad Materials in ASME (Table 2.92)
			2.1.8.3 Selection of Cladding Materials from a Cost Standpoint
		2.1.9 Nonmetallic Materials: Plastic, Elastomer, Ceramic, and Composite Materials
		2.1.10 P-No.-Gr. No./S-No./F-No./A-No./SFA No./AWS Class-UNS No.
			2.1.10.1 P-No. and Group No. [P = Parent]
			2.1.10.2 S-Numbers (ASME SEC IX QW-420.2/QW/QB-422 - Nonmandatory)
			2.1.10.3 F-Numbers (ASME SEC IX QW-430/432) [F = Filler] - Table 2.102
			2.1.10.4 A-Numbers (ASME Sec. IX QW-442) [A = Alloyed] - Table 2.103
			2.1.10.5 SFA Numbers (ASME Sec. II, Part C) - Table 2.104
			2.1.10.6 AWS Class-UNS Numbers - Table 2.105
		2.1.11 ISO/TR 15608 (Welding-Guidelines for a Metallic Materials Grouping System) and EN 13445
		2.1.12 API Materials Classes for Pumps and Valves
			2.1.12.1 Pumps
			2.1.12.2 Valves
	2.2 Degradation and Requirements of Metals in Low Temperatures
		2.2.1 Characteristics of Materials in Low Temperatures
			2.2.1.1 General Characteristics of Metals in Low Temperatures
			2.2.1.2 CVN Impact Test Absorbing Energy (IAE)
			2.2.1.3 Chemical Composition Effect
			2.2.1.4 Oxygen Killing Effects
			2.2.1.5 Grain Size Effects
			2.2.1.6 Thickness Effects
			2.2.1.7 Tensile Strength (T.S) Effects
			2.2.1.8 Yield Strength (Y.S) Effects
			2.2.1.9 Test Direction of Specimen
			2.2.1.10 Metallurgical and Physical Effects
			2.2.1.11 Geometry-Notch Effects (Figs. 2.124, 2.125, and 2.126) - To Be Minimized.
			2.2.1.12 Heat Treatment Effects
			2.2.1.13 Thermal Shock During Cooling Down
		2.2.2 Practical Requirements for Impact Test in Codes and Standards
			2.2.2.1 Minimum Required Absorbing Energy
			2.2.2.2 Governing Thickness (GT) to Define the Impact Test Requirements in Codes
			2.2.2.3 Subsize Specimen
			2.2.2.4 CVN Impact Test Exemption Curves
		2.2.3 Material Classes in Low-Temperature and Cryogenic Services (Table 2.120)
		2.2.4 Summary of Code Applications for Low Temperature (Table 2.121)
	2.3 Metal Loss and Degradation of Metals in High Temperature
		2.3.1 Graphitization and Spheroidization from Operation in Elevated Temperature
		2.3.2 Temper Embrittlement from Operation in Elevated Temperatures
		2.3.3 Sigma (σ) Phase Embrittlement from Operation in Elevated Temperature
		2.3.4 475 C (885 F) Embrittlement from Welding, Heat Treatment, and Operation in Elevated Temperature
		2.3.5 Degradation by Hot Work
		2.3.6 Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) from Welding and Operation
			2.3.6.1 Phenomena
			2.3.6.2 Affected Materials and Critical Factors
			2.3.6.3 Prevention and Mitigation
		2.3.7 Solidification Crack (Hot Crack or Liquation Crack) from Welding
		2.3.8 Reheat Cracking (or Stress Relaxation Cracking-SRC)
		2.3.9 Creep and Rupture from Operation at Elevated Temperatures
		2.3.10 Thermal Fatigue/Shock from Operation in Elevated Temperature
			2.3.10.1 Thermal Fatigue
			2.3.10.2 Thermal Shock at Elevated Temperature
	2.4 Corrosion Types and Their Prevention
		2.4.1 General/Localized Corrosion and Corrosion Allowance
			2.4.1.1 Classes by Corrosion Mechanism
			2.4.1.2 Types, Corrosion Rate Calculation, and Corrosion Allowance in General/Uniform Corrosion
			2.4.1.3 Galvanic Corrosion
			2.4.1.4 Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)
			2.4.1.5 Wet CO2 (Carbonic Acid) Corrosion
			2.4.1.6 Key Corrosivity Factors for General Corrosion and Localized Corrosion
			2.4.1.7 Typical Corrosion and Prevention in Tube Bundle of H/EXs
		2.4.2 Environmentally Assisted Cracking (EAC) Corrosion and Prevention in Moderate Temperature, <204 C/(400 F)
			2.4.2.1 Wet H2S (Sour) Corrosion Cracking
			2.4.2.2 HF Corrosion Cracking
			2.4.2.3 Amine Corrosion and Cracking
			2.4.2.4 Caustic Corrosion and Cracking
			2.4.2.5 Alkaline Carbonate SCC
			2.4.2.6 Polythionic Acid SCC (PTASCC)
			2.4.2.7 Chlorides SCC (CLSCC)
			2.4.2.8 Nitrate SCC - Source: http://jes.ecsdl.org/content/87/1/209.short
			2.4.2.9 Sulfate SCC
			2.4.2.10 Anhydrous Ammonia Cracking (AAC as a SCC)
			2.4.2.11 Fatigue Corrosion Cracking
			2.4.2.12 Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE) Other Than HTHA
			2.4.2.13 Corrosion Under Insulation and Fireproofing (CUI and CUF) - Commonly Called CUI
		2.4.3 Local and Cracking Corrosion and Prevention in High Temperatures, 204 C/(400 F)
			2.4.3.1 High-Temperature Oxidation
			2.4.3.2 Carburization
			2.4.3.3 Metal Dusting
			2.4.3.4 Nitriding
			2.4.3.5 High-Temperature Sulfidation
			2.4.3.6 High-Temperature Hydrogen Attack (HTHA)
		2.4.4 Test and Inspection for Metal Loss/Damage/Prevention due to Corrosion
			2.4.4.1 Summary of Typical Metallurgical Damage Mechanisms and Defects
			2.4.4.2 Summary of Environmentally Assisted Cracking (EAC)- Most Critical Issues in Oil and Gas Industries
			2.4.4.3 Summary of Typical Test/Inspection and Monitoring for Metal Damage and Corrosion
			2.4.4.4 Standards for Atmosphere, Salt Spray, MIC, and Galvanic Corrosion Tests: TM = Test Method(s), Spec = Specification
			2.4.4.5 Standards for Immersion Tests-General Corrosion Rate by Weight Loss of Metal
			2.4.4.6 Standards for IGC, Pitting, SCC, Crevice, Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE), and Fatigue Corrosion Tests
			2.4.4.7 Standards for Tests and Data Collection in Soil and Concrete Rebar Corrosion and Cathodic Protection (CP)
			2.4.4.8 Standards for Tests and Guidelines in Coating, Rust Prevention, Cleaning, and Passivation
			2.4.4.9 Other Standards for Corrosion Tests
		2.4.5 Erosion, Abrasion, Adhesive Wear, and Friction
			2.4.5.1 Definition
			2.4.5.2 Major Factors Affecting Erosion-Corrosion in Piping, Pipelines, and Tubes
			2.4.5.3 Erosion Prevention-Hardfacing of Valve Trims
	2.5 Test Reports (MTR) and Positive Materials Identification (PMI)
		2.5.1 Material Identification and PMI Requirements
			2.5.1.1 Material Identification for Traceability
			2.5.1.2 Material Traceability
			2.5.1.3 PMI (Positive Materials Identifications) Specification
		2.5.2 Heat Analysis and Product Analysis - Table 2.160
		2.5.3 Comparison of (C)MTR and PMI (Table 2.170)
	2.6 Characteristics of ASTM/ASME Materials (Ferrous and Nonferrous Metals)
		2.6.1 Sections, Volumes, and Application Guidelines of ASTM
		2.6.2 ASTM/ASME Materials Well Used in Energy and Chemical Industries
			2.6.2.1 Plates and Strips - See General Notes
			2.6.2.2 Pipes and Tubes - See General Notes
				For Mass Transfer (w = welded, s = seamless) - Note 7
				For Heat Transfer (Heat Exchanger Tubes: (w = welded, s = seamless) - See General Notes
			2.6.2.3 Tubes/Supports for Fired Heaters and Boilers (w = welded, s = seamless) - See General Notes
			2.6.2.4 Forgings & Wrought (Fittings) - See General Notes
			2.6.2.5 Castings - See General Notes
			2.6.2.6 Bolts (Bolts and Studs) and Nuts - See General Notes
			2.6.2.7 Insulation/Refractory Materials (Nonmetallic) - See General Notes
Chapter 3: Fabrication and Construction of Equipment and Piping
	3.1 Pressure Vessels and Heat Exchangers
		3.1.1 General Consideration of Fabrication and Construction
			3.1.1.1 Applicable Codes, Standards, and Regulations
			3.1.1.2 Check Points for Fabrication, Construction, and Operation
		3.1.2 Fabrications of Parts
		3.1.3 Fabrication Sequence and Weld Seam Location
		3.1.4 Specific Requirements for Fabrication
			3.1.4.1 Cold Work (Cold Forming and Cold Bending)
			3.1.4.2 Hot Work (Hot Forming and Hot Bending)
			3.1.4.3 Fabrication Requirements in ASME Codes (Pressure Vessels and Piping) - Table 3.8
		3.1.5 Packing, Shipping, and Transportation
		3.1.6 Erection of Equipment and Piping
		3.1.7 Heat Exchangers (H/EX)
			3.1.7.1 Work Hardening and Non-work Hardening Metals Described in TEMA and API
			3.1.7.2 Requirements for Tubes
			3.1.7.3 Requirements of Tube-to-Tubesheet Joints Design and Fabrication
	3.2 Piping and Valves
		3.2.1 Fabrications of Parts
			3.2.1.1 Piping Spool Fabrication
			3.2.1.2 Miter Welding
		3.2.2 Cold Bending of Pipe
			3.2.2.1 Dimensions
			3.2.2.2 Heat Treatment Requirements
			3.2.2.3 NDE: Recommendation
			3.2.2.4 Other Tests: Recommendation
		3.2.3 Induction Bending of Pipe
			3.2.3.1 Application of Induction Bending
			3.2.3.2 General Requirements of Induction Bending (Recommendation Unless Otherwise Specified in the Purchaser´s Specifications)
			3.2.3.3 Mechanical Tests (Recommendation Unless Otherwise Specified in the Purchaser´s Specifications)
			3.2.3.4 Dimensions (Recommendation Unless Otherwise Specified in the Purchaser´s Specifications)
			3.2.3.5 Bends Intended for Pigging Application
			3.2.3.6 Post Bending Heat Treatment Requirements (Recommendation Unless Otherwise Specified in the Purchaser´s Specifications)
			3.2.3.7 NDE (Recommendation Unless Otherwise Specified in the Purchaser´s Specifications)
			3.2.3.8 Essential Variables of Pipe Bending (Recommendation Unless Otherwise Specified in the Purchaser´s Specifications)
		3.2.4 Cryogenic Valves
		3.2.5 Marking and Color Coding of Piping Materials
			3.2.5.1 Applicable Components
			3.2.5.2 Codes and Standards
			3.2.5.3 Marking Materials and Techniques
			3.2.5.4 Items Excluded from Marking
			3.2.5.5 Typical Marking Procedure with Color Coding
		3.2.6 Gasket Selection
			3.2.6.1 General Requirements (Recommendation)
			3.2.6.2 Specific Requirements for Certain Services (Recommendation)
	3.3 Other Fabrication
		3.3.1 Insulation, Refractory Lining, and Fireproofing
			3.3.1.1 Insulation
			3.3.1.2 Refractory Lining
			3.3.1.3 Fireproofing
		3.3.2 Shop Isolation
		3.3.3 Telltale and Vent Holes
		3.3.4 Hot Box
		3.3.5 Bolts Tensioning and Torqueing
			3.3.5.1 Hand Tightening
			3.3.5.2 Torque Wrenches
			3.3.5.3 Bolting Torqueing
			3.3.5.4 Controlled Sequence of Bolting
			3.3.5.5 Tightening Method and Load-Control Technique Selection
	3.4 Cleaning, Finishes, and Coating of Metal Surfaces
		3.4.1 Mechanical or Physical Cleaning
			3.4.1.1 Conventional Mechanical Cleaning
			3.4.1.2 Steam Cleaning
			3.4.1.3 Shot Jet Cleaning
			3.4.1.4 High-Pressure Water Jet Cleaning
			3.4.1.5 Induced Wave Cleanings
			3.4.1.6 Sponge Jet Cleaning
			3.4.1.7 Online Treatment of Fired Heaters
			3.4.1.8 ``Between Fins´´ Cleaning
			3.4.1.9 Fired Heater Robotic Cleaning
			3.4.1.10 H/EX Tube Bundles Cleaning
		3.4.2 Chemical Cleaning
			3.4.2.1 Overview
			3.4.2.2 Chemical Cleaning
			3.4.2.3 Alkaline Cleaning on Stainless Steels
		3.4.3 Surface Preparation Before Coating
		3.4.4 Paint Color Code Standards
			3.4.4.1 Munsell Color System
			3.4.4.2 US Federal Standard 595 Color Classes
			3.4.4.3 RAL Color System
			3.4.4.4 RGB (Red-Green-Blue) Color System
		3.4.5 Surface Finish
			3.4.5.1 Definitions and Types of Surface Roughness
			3.4.5.2 Surface Finishing/Polishing (Brightness) for Flat-Rolled Stainless, Heat-Resisting Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip
			3.4.5.3 Conversion/Comparison of Standards-Surface Finishing/Polishing
			3.4.5.4 Roughness and Serration of the Surface of Flange Gasket Contact Face
		3.4.6 Thermal Spray Coating (TSC)
		3.4.7 Repair of Galvanized Steel
	3.5 Materials Protection During Transportation or Storage
		3.5.1 Rust Prevention
		3.5.2 Packing and Shipping for Oversea Transportation
			3.5.2.1 Preparation
			3.5.2.2 Packing and Shipping
			3.5.2.3 Marking
			3.5.2.4 Removal of Dusts on Metal Surfaces
		3.5.3 Mothballing
		3.5.4 Winterization
			3.5.4.1 The Oil and Gas Plants Should be Considered the Following Conditions for Winterization
			3.5.4.2 Critical Temperature
			3.5.4.3 Considerable Facilities that Require Protective Heating
			3.5.4.4 Protection
		3.5.5 External Coating on Metal Surfaces
		3.5.6 Corrosion Protection of Bolting Materials
			3.5.6.1 Coating of Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Bolting Materials in Onshore Non-coastal Environment
			3.5.6.2 Coating of Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Bolting Materials in Offshore or Coastal Environment
Chapter 4: Welding and Heat Treatment Requirements in Shop and Field
	4.1 Standards and Weldability
		4.1.1 Codes & Standards and Terms for Welding
			4.1.1.1 Codes and Standards for Welding
			4.1.1.2 Terms and Definitions for Welding: See AWS A3.0, API 660, TEMA, etc. for More Details
			4.1.1.3 Welding Positions and Symbols
		4.1.2 Definition and Comparison of Weldability
		4.1.3 Factors Affected to Weldability
		4.1.4 Alignment Tolerance and Reinforcement on Weldment
		4.1.5 Joint Details for Specific Welds
			4.1.5.1 Definitions of Weld Joint Types
			4.1.5.2 Cutback Detail of Clad Butt Weld (Recommendation)
			4.1.5.3 Narrow Gap for Heavy Wall Pressure Vessel Weld
		4.1.6 Closure Seam Weld
			4.1.6.1 Closure Weld in Field Piping System
			4.1.6.2 Closure Weld Control in Pressure Vessels
	4.2 Deformation and Crack of Metal due to Heat
		4.2.1 General Defects by Welding
		4.2.2 Deformation and Crack of Metal
		4.2.3 Hardness Effect on Weldments
		4.2.4 Residual Stress on Weldments
		4.2.5 Cooling Time Control (T8/5) for Ferritic Steel
			4.2.5.1 Definition and Background
			4.2.5.2 Determination of Cooling Time (T8/5)
		4.2.6 Lamellar Tearing
		4.2.7 Solidification (Hot) Cracking of Carbon Steel
		4.2.8 Solidification (Hot) Cracking of Austenitic Stainless Steel (ASS)
		4.2.9 Weld Crack Tests
	4.3 Hydrogen Effect
		4.3.1 Hydrogen-Induced Cracking in Welds
		4.3.2 Diffusible Hydrogen (DH) Control
		4.3.3 Hydrogen Control During Welding Process
		4.3.4 Hydrogen Control by Baking Out (Degassing) after Welding (Post-Heat)
	4.4 Preheat, Interpass Temperature, Post-Heat, Carbon Equivalent, and Heat Input
		4.4.1 Carbon Equivalent (Ceq, Pcm, and CEN) and the Related Preheat Requirements
		4.4.2 Preheat and Interpass Temperature for Welding
			4.4.2.1 Preheat
			4.4.2.2 Interpass Temperature
		4.4.3 Post-Heat After Welding
		4.4.4 Heat Input (Q) for Welding
	4.5 Controlled Deposition Welding (CDW) and Buttering Welding
		4.5.1 Temper Bead Welding Technique
		4.5.2 Half Bead Welding Technique
		4.5.3 Buttering Welding
	4.6 Hot Tap Welding
		4.6.1 Characteristics of Hot Tapping
		4.6.2 General Consideration
		4.6.3 Consideration of Welding Electrodes
		4.6.4 Consideration of Service Flow Rates
		4.6.5 Welding Crack and Burn-Through
	4.7 Welding Processes
		4.7.1 Master Chart of Welding Processes (Fig. 4.43)
		4.7.2 Application of Arc Welding Processes
			4.7.2.1 SMAW (Shield Metal Arc Welding)
			4.7.2.2 GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding)
			4.7.2.3 GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)
			4.7.2.4 FCAW (Flux Core Arc Welding)
			4.7.2.5 SAW (Submerged Arc Welding)
			4.7.2.6 ESW (Electroslag Welding)
			4.7.2.7 EGW (Electrogas Welding)
			4.7.2.8 PAW (Plasma Arc Welding)
		4.7.3 Advanced Welding Techniques
			4.7.3.1 Orbital Welding
			4.7.3.2 Surface Tension Transfer (STT) Welding: Modified GMAW Process (as Short Arc Transfer Mode or Short Arc Welding)
			4.7.3.3 New Regulated Metal Deposition (RMD) MIG Welding Process Improves Stainless Steel Pipe Fabrication: Modified GMAW Proc...
	4.8 Designations of Welding Metals
		4.8.1 ASME Section II, Part C/AWS: Designations of Welding Consumable Materials
			4.8.1.1 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.1: CS Electrodes for SMAW
			4.8.1.2 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.5: LAS Electrodes for SMAW
			4.8.1.3 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.18: CS Solid Wire for GMAW and GTAW; ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.28: LAS Solid Wire ...
			4.8.1.4 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.18: CS Composite Electrodes for GMAW, GTAW, PAW; ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.28: LAS...
			4.8.1.5 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.20: CS Flux-Cored Wire for FCAW
			4.8.1.6 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.29: Flux-Cored Wire (FCAW) for LAS
			4.8.1.7 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.22: SS Flux-Cored Stainless Steel Electrode/Rods for FCAW
			4.8.1.8 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.9: SS Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metal Stainless Steel for FCAW/Strip/Composite Cored
			4.8.1.9 ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.17: CS Electrodes for SAW; ASME Section II, Part C, SFA-5.23: LAS Electrodes for SAW
		4.8.2 Designation of Chemical Composition and Tensile Strength
	4.9 Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) and Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)
		4.9.1 Variables for Welding
			4.9.1.1 Essential Variables in ASME Sec. IX
			4.9.1.2 Supplemental Essential Variables in ASME Sec. IX
			4.9.1.3 Nonessential Variables in ASME Sec. IX
			4.9.1.4 Check Sheets for WPS and PQR
		4.9.2 WPS (Welding Procedure Specification): See Tables 4.55 and 4.56 for Sample WPSs of Pressure Vessels and Piping Component...
			4.9.2.1 Role and Definition of WPS
			4.9.2.2 Test and Qualification
			4.9.2.3 Qualified Welding Procedure and Specification
			4.9.2.4 Factors in Welding Procedure
			4.9.2.5 Tested Thickness in PQR and Qualified Thickness for WPS: ASME Sec. IX, Table QW 451.1
		4.9.3 PQR (Procedure Qualification Record): See Tables 4.59 and 4.60 for Sample PQR
	4.10 Production Tests and Acceptance Criteria for Welds
		4.10.1 Production Tests for Welds
		4.10.2 Acceptance Criteria for Welds
	4.11 Welding of Several Metals and Special Types
		4.11.1 Dissimilar Metal Welding (DMW)
			4.11.1.1 Check Points of DMW Joints
			4.11.1.2 API RP582 Requirements for DMW
			4.11.1.3 DMW Between Carbon Steels and Low Alloy Steels: See Table 4.63
			4.11.1.4 DMW Between Carbon Steels and Stainless Steels: Table 4.65
			4.11.1.5 DMW Between DSS-ASS-Nickel Based Alloys
			4.11.1.6 DMW Between CS-ASS-SASS-Nickel Based Alloys: See Table 4.67 below
			4.11.1.7 DMW Between Aluminum Based Alloys and Between Copper Based Alloys
		4.11.2 Welding of Cast Iron (CI)
			4.11.2.1 General
			4.11.2.2 Preparation
			4.11.2.3 Precautions
			4.11.2.4 Welding of Several Cast Irons
			4.11.2.5 Welding Procedures of Several Cast Irons
			4.11.2.6 Weld Imperfections
			4.11.2.7 Repair Welding of Castings
			4.11.2.8 Welding of Pump Castings
		4.11.3 Welding of Cr-Mo Steels (Cr  3%)
			4.11.3.1 Requirements for Base Metal and Welding Electrodes (Cr  3%)
			4.11.3.2 Requirements for 9Cr-1Mo-V (Gr.91 metal): API TR938-B, EPRI 2015 Report, and Others
		4.11.4 Welding of Low Temperature Nickel Steels
		4.11.5 Welding of Martensitic, Ferritic, and Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels (MSS, FSS, and PHSS)
			4.11.5.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels (MSS)
			4.11.5.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels (FSS)
			4.11.5.3 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels (PHSS)
		4.11.6 Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels (ASS)
			4.11.6.1 Chemical Composition and Purge Gas Requirements and Recommended Current for ASS Welding
			4.11.6.2 Description and Intended Use of SS Electrodes (Table 4.82)
			4.11.6.3 Welding of Stabilized Austenitic Stainless Steels (ASS)
			4.11.6.4 Solidification Crack and Delta Ferrite Effect: See Sect. 2.1.6.1
			4.11.6.5 Sensitization and IGC: See Sect. 2.1.6.3
			4.11.6.6 Weld Decay
			4.11.6.7 Knife-Line Attack (KLA)
		4.11.7 Welding of Duplex Stainless Steels (DSS)
			4.11.7.1 Weldability of DSS
			4.11.7.2 Heat Input (Q) and Preheat: Recommendation
			4.11.7.3 Other Requirements for DSS Welding: Recommendation
		4.11.8 Welding of Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloys
		4.11.9 Welding of Aluminum and Aluminum-Based Alloys
			4.11.9.1 Traditionally the Welding of Aluminum Alloys Is Not Easy Compared to Steel Welding. Also, Dissimilar Welding Is Very ...
			4.11.9.2 Traditional Defects of Aluminum Alloy Welding
			4.11.9.3 Weldability of Several Aluminum Alloys
			4.11.9.4 Key factors of Aluminum Filler Selection
			4.11.9.5 Recommended Filler Metals for Welding of Aluminum
		4.11.10 Welding of Copper and Copper-Based Alloys
		4.11.11 Welding of Titanium and Titanium-Based Alloys
		4.11.12 Welding of Zirconium and Zirconium-Based Alloys
		4.11.13 Welding of Tantalum Alloys
		4.11.14 Brazing
		4.11.15 Weld Overlay
		4.11.16 Explosion Cladding
		4.11.17 Specific Considerations for Heavy/Thin Wall Welding
			4.11.17.1 Additional Considerations for Heavy Wall Welding
			4.11.17.2 Specific Considerations for Thin Wall Welding
	4.12 Heat Treatment and Stress Relieving for Fabrication of Equipment and Piping
		4.12.1 Roles and Purpose of Heat Treatment for Equipment and Piping
		4.12.2 Classes of Heat Treatment for Equipment and Piping
		4.12.3 PWHT, Stress Relief, Annealing, and Solution Heat Treatment for Several Metals and Environments
			4.12.3.1 General Requirements for Heat Treatment in Codes
			4.12.3.2 Requirements for Post-Fabrication Strain Limits in ASME Codes
			4.12.3.3 Requirements for PWHT in ASME Codes
			4.12.3.4 Requirements for PWHT in API, AWS, WRC, BS EN Codes and Standards
			4.12.3.5 Heat Treatment of Stainless Steels in Metal Handbooks and Other Resources
			4.12.3.6 Heat Treatments for Dissimilar Metal Weld Joints
			4.12.3.7 ISR/DHT/Final PWHT for 2  to 3Cr-1Mo Steel Welds in Company Standards and API RP934-A/TR934-D
			4.12.3.8 Heat Treatment for Gr. 91 Material (9Cr-1Mo-V Enhanced)
			4.12.3.9 PWHT for Cast Irons
			4.12.3.10 Heat Treatment of Nickel Based Alloys
			4.12.3.11 Heat Treatment of Copper Based Alloys After Fabrication
			4.12.3.12 Heat Treatment of Aluminum Based Alloys
			4.12.3.13 Heat Treatment of Titanium and Zirconium Based Alloys
			4.12.3.14 Heat Treatment for Hot-Formed Components
			4.12.3.15 PWHT Requirements in Environmentally Assisted Cracking (EAC) Services
			4.12.3.16 Stress Relieving for H/EX U-Bends
			4.12.3.17 Heat Treatment Requirements for Forged Fabrication (ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 2)
			4.12.3.18 Additional Requirements and Case Studies
		4.12.4 Caution of Tempering After Normalizing or Quenching
		4.12.5 Thermally Stabilizing Heat Treatment for Stabilized Stainless Steels
		4.12.6 Local PWHT
		4.12.7 Normalizing Treatment After Fabrication of Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Equipment and Piping
		4.12.8 Cold and Sub-Zero Treatment
		4.12.9 Peening
Chapter 5: Test and Inspection Requirements in Codes and Standards
	5.1 Overview of Test and Inspection
		5.1.1 Activities and Responsibilities
		5.1.2 Inspection Standards in API and NACE (Other Than Onshore Equipment Standards)
	5.2 Destructive Examination (DE) for New Construction and Maintenance
		5.2.1 Classes and Characteristics of Special DE Requirements
		5.2.2 Mechanical Tests
			5.2.2.1 Typical Tensile Test at Atmosphere (Not Through-Thickness Test)
			5.2.2.2 Hot Tensile Test
			5.2.2.3 ``Z´´ Direction Test (per Client´s Requirement in Heavy Thickness or Hydrogen Service)
			5.2.2.4 Creep and Rupture Test
			5.2.2.5 Fatigue Test
			5.2.2.6 Shear Stress Test
			5.2.2.7 Disbonding Test for Clad or Weld Overlay Metal
			5.2.2.8 Proof Tests to Establish Maximum Allowance Working Pressure
			5.2.2.9 Bend Test of Pipes - Figs. 5.3 and 5.4
			5.2.2.10 Crush (as a Compression) Test (Fig. 5.5)
			5.2.2.11 Flattening (Reverse Flattening) Test of Pipes or Tubes (Figs. 5.6 and 5.7)
			5.2.2.12 Flaring Test of Pipes or Tubes (Fig. 5.8)
			5.2.2.13 Flange Test of Pipes or Tubes (Fig. 5.9)
		5.2.3 Toughness Tests
			5.2.3.1 Charpy V Notch (CVN) Impact Test
			5.2.3.2 Izod Test
			5.2.3.3 Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) Test
			5.2.3.4 K1C Test
			5.2.3.5 J1C Test
			5.2.3.6 K-R Curve Determination Test (for Determination of the Resistance to Fracture of Metallic Materials Under Mode I Loadi...
			5.2.3.7 J-R Curve Test
			5.2.3.8 Determination of Reference Temperature
			5.2.3.9 Critical Crack-Tip-Opening Angle (CTOA) or Crack Opening Displacement (COD)
			5.2.3.10 Drop Weight Test (DWT)
			5.2.3.11 Dynamic Tear Test
			5.2.3.12 Measurement of Fatigue Crack Growth Rates
	5.3 General Classification of Nondestructive Examination (NDE)
		5.3.1 Classes of NDE: Advantage and Disadvantage See Table 5.3
		5.3.2 Characteristics and Applicable References of NDE
			5.3.2.1 NDE for Measurement of Defects in Metal and Welds
			5.3.2.2 NDE for Measurement of Metal Thickness
			5.3.2.3 NDE for Measurement of Coating Thickness
			5.3.2.4 NDE Personnel Qualification and Certifications
		5.3.3 RT Requirements in ASME
			5.3.3.1 RT Requirements in ASME Sec. VIII
			5.3.3.2 RT Requirements in ASME B31.3
			5.3.3.3 Marking Requirements for RT in in ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1 (Table 5.12)
		5.3.4 MT and PT Requirements in ASME Sec. VIII, Div. 1
		5.3.5 UT Techniques and Requirements in Codes and Standards
		5.3.6 NDE for OCTG and Offshore Structures (API)
		5.3.7 Summary of General Requirements and Acceptance Criteria of NDE in Codes and Specification
	5.4 Functional Classification of NDE/NDT
		5.4.1 Hardness Test and Requirements
			5.4.1.1 Types of Hardness Tests
			5.4.1.2 Hardness Tests for Metallic Materials per Codes and Standards
			5.4.1.3 Hardness Test for Nonmetals
		5.4.2 Metallurgy Analysis
		5.4.3 Inspection of H/EX Tubes
			5.4.3.1 IRIS (Internal Rotary Inspection System)
			5.4.3.2 ECT (Eddy Current Testing)
			5.4.3.3 RFECT (Remote Field Eddy Current Testing)
			5.4.3.4 DINSEARCH (Magnetic Bias)
		5.4.4 Specific Test and Inspection
			5.4.4.1 Measurement of Thickness on Stream - Fig. 5.26
			5.4.4.2 Inspection for CUI on Stream
			5.4.4.3 Inspection for Hot Spot on Stream
			5.4.4.4 Replica Tests (Fig. 5.29)
			5.4.4.5 Scooping Tests (Fig. 5.30)
			5.4.4.6 Continuous Measurement of Strain Gauges
	5.5 Hydrostatic (Hydrotest), Pneumatic, Vacuum, and Cryogenic Tests
		5.5.1 Principle Concept of Hydrostatic and Pneumatic Tests (Table 5.42)
		5.5.2 Requirements for Hydrostatic and Pneumatic Tests
			5.5.2.1 Characteristics and Comparison of Hydrostatic and Pneumatic Test (Table 5.43)
			5.5.2.2 Hydrotest
			5.5.2.3 Pneumatic Test
		5.5.3 Vacuum Test
			5.5.3.1 Vacuum Test of Equipment Designed as Dewar Flask or Vacuum Pressure
			5.5.3.2 Vacuum Test of Double Wall Container Designed as Dewar Flask/Boil-off Test
			5.5.3.3 Vacuum Test of Tank Bottom Plate Designed as Vacuum Pressure (API 650 Tank)
		5.5.4 Gas/Bubble Test
		5.5.5 Requirements for Hydrotest/Rinsing Water Quality
			5.5.5.1 Types and Characteristics of Hydrotest Water
			5.5.5.2 Requirements Before Hydrotest
			5.5.5.3 Chloride Limitation for Hydrotest/Rinsing Water
			5.5.5.4 Protection per Water Source and Materials (Table 5.50)
			5.5.5.5 Quality Control of Hydrotest Water for Corrosion Prevention
			5.5.5.6 Hydrotest with Seawater
		5.5.6 Cryogenic Leakage Test of Valves
	Useful Websites
	General References: Other Than Codes and Standards
Appendix
	A.1 Temperature Conversion Tables (See Table 1.79 for the Conversion Used in ASME Sec. VIII).
	A.2 Hardness Conversion Tables
	A.3 Properties of Steels and Alloys
	A.4 Poisson Ratio and Rigidity of Steels and Alloys (Source: ASME Sec II-D, Table PRD)
	A.5 Elastic Modulus of Metals
	A.6 Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity of Metals (See ASME Sec. II, Part D, Table TCD for More Detail)
	A.7 Thermal Expansion Coefficiency of Metals (See ASME Sec. II, Part D, Table TE-1 through TE-5 for More Detail)
	A.8 Simplified Materials Cost Ratio Based on the Killed CS (Only for Reference; `` - `` No Data)
	A.9 Thickness Gauge Conversion and Pipe Schedule Tables
	A.10 Molar Heat Capacities for Various Gases
	A.11 Dew Point (C) Determination
	A.12 Unit Conversion Table
	A.13 Mathematical Symbols and the Greek Alphabet
		A.13.1 Mathematical Signals and Symbols
		A.13.2 The Greek Alphabet
Index