Handbook of Ecotoxicology

Front Cover\r......Page 1
Title Page\r......Page 2
Copyright\r......Page 5
Preface......Page 6
The Editors......Page 8
REVIEW BOARD......Page 12
Contributors......Page 14
Contents......Page 20
1.1 HISTORY......Page 26
1.2 QUANTIFYING AND MEASURING ECOTOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS......Page 28
1.3 CONTAMINANT SOURCES AND EFFECTS......Page 30
1.4 CASE HISTORIES AND ECOSYSTEM SURVEYS......Page 33
1.5 METHODS FOR MAKING ESTIMATES, PREDICTABILITY, AND RISK ASSESSMENT IN ECOTOXICOLOGY......Page 35
1.6 SPECIAL ISSUES IN ECOTOXICOLOGY......Page 37
REFERENCES......Page 39
I Quantifying and Measuring Ecotoxicological Effects......Page 42
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 44
2.2 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY......Page 45
2.3 TEST METHODS......Page 46
2.3.2 Chronic Toxicity Tests......Page 47
2.3.4 Flow-Through Toxicity Tests......Page 49
2.3.5 Sediment Tests......Page 50
2.3.6 Bioconcentration Studies......Page 52
2.4.1 Acute Toxicity Tests......Page 54
2.4.2 Partial Life-Cycle and Chronic Toxicity Tests......Page 55
2.5 REGULATORY ASPECTS OF AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES 2.5.1 Clean Water Act (CWA)......Page 56
2.5.2 Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)......Page 57
2.5.4 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act (FFDCA)......Page 58
2.5.6 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA)......Page 59
2.6 SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTION OF AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY......Page 60
REFERENCES......Page 63
CONTENTS......Page 70
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 71
3.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE......Page 72
3.3 BIOMAGNIFICATION......Page 73
3.4.5 Artificial Stream......Page 74
3.5 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS......Page 75
3.5.1 Scaling Effects in Artificial System Reseach......Page 77
3.5.2 Variability......Page 78
3.5.3 Colonization and Acclimation......Page 79
3.5.4 Macrophytes......Page 80
3.5.5 Fish......Page 81
3.6.2 Application Method and Dosing......Page 82
3.7 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS 3.7.1 Experimental Design Considerations......Page 83
3.7.3 Level of Taxonomic Analysis......Page 84
3.7.6 Multivariate Methods......Page 85
3.8 SUMMARY......Page 86
REFERENCES......Page 87
CONTENTS......Page 100
4.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND......Page 101
4.2.1 Single-Dose Acute Oral......Page 103
4.2.2 Subacute Dietary......Page 106
4.3 AVIAN SUBCHRONIC DIETARY TOXICITY TEST......Page 107
4.4.1 Reproduction Studies — Basic Protocol......Page 108
4.4.2 Reproduction Studies: An Alternative Protocol......Page 109
4.5 SINGLE-DOSE AVIAN EMBRYOTOXICITY AND TERATOGENICITY TESTS......Page 110
4.6.1 American Kestrels......Page 112
4.6.3 Herring Gulls and Black Guillemots......Page 114
4.6.4 Great Egrets......Page 115
4.7.2 Types of Field Studies......Page 116
4.8 AVIAN BEHAVIORAL TOXICITY TESTING......Page 119
4.8.2 Critical Periods of Development......Page 120
4.9 MAMMALIAN WILDLIFE TOXICITY TESTING......Page 121
4.10 AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE TOXICITY TESTING......Page 123
4.11 SUMMARY......Page 125
REFERENCES......Page 127
CONTENTS......Page 136
5.1.2 Regulatory Concerns......Page 137
5.2 ASSESSMENT ISSUES AND CONCERNS 5.2.1 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Interactions: Maintaining Sediment Integrity......Page 139
5.2.2 Sample Alteration......Page 140
5.3.2 General Requirements for Test Organism Care......Page 145
5.3.3 Freshwater Test Organisms......Page 146
5.4.1 Negative Controls......Page 164
5.4.4 Test Organisms......Page 165
5.5 SUMMARY......Page 166
REFERENCES......Page 168
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 176
6.2 METHODS FOR DETERMINING SOIL INTAKE......Page 177
6.3 INTENTIONAL GEOPHAGY IN ANIMALS......Page 178
6.4 SOIL INGESTION BY DOMESTIC ANIMALS......Page 179
6.5 SOIL AND SEDIMENT INGESTION BY WILDLIFE......Page 180
6.7 RELATION OF PARTICLE SIZE OF INGESTED SOIL TO EXPOSURE TO CONTAMINANTS......Page 183
6.8 BIOAVAILABILITY OF ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN SOIL......Page 184
6.9 BIOAVAILABILITY OF INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN SOIL......Page 185
6.10 APPLICATIONS TO RISK ASSESSMENTS......Page 186
REFERENCES......Page 188
CONTENTS......Page 192
7.2 TERMINOLOGY AND APPLICATION......Page 193
7.2.1 Tools Available for Evaluating Habitat Remediation......Page 194
7.2.2 Setting Targets for Soil Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRGs) Focused on Habitat Remediation......Page 195
7.2.3 Bioavailability: Its Evaluation and Role in Designing and Implementing Remediation Plans Focused on Wildlife......Page 199
7.3 WORKING WITH SOIL PRGs AND DIFFERENTIAL BIOAVAILABILITY: REMEDIATION OF TERRESTRIAL AND WETLAND HABITATS......Page 200
7.3.1 Soils: Abiotic and Biotic Factors Influencing Rvegetation Success......Page 201
7.3.2 Soil Factors Commonly Limiting Revegetation Success on Disturbed Soils......Page 204
7.3.3 Evaluation and Reestablishment of a Soil Biota for Long-Term Revegetation Success......Page 205
7.3.4 Soil Tilth and Vegetation: Restoring Remediated Soils to Assure Long-Term Sustainability......Page 207
7.4 SUMMARY......Page 210
REFERENCES......Page 211
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 216
8.2 ALGAE 8.2.1 Introduction......Page 217
8.2.2 Test Methodologies......Page 218
8.2.3 Environmental Significance of Result......Page 224
8.2.4 Usefulness of Algal Phytotoxicity Tests......Page 225
8.3.2 Duckweeds......Page 226
8.3.3 Submersed and Emergent Vegetation......Page 227
8.4.2 Test Methods......Page 229
8.4.5 Measured Responses......Page 230
8.5 SUMMARY......Page 231
REFERENCES......Page 232
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 244
9.2 THE NEED FOR A LANDSCAPE VIEW IN ECOTOXICOLOGY......Page 245
9.3 OBSTACLES TO LANDSCAPE ECOTOXICOLOGY......Page 246
9.5 TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS FACILITATING LARGE-SCALE ECOTOXICOLOGY......Page 247
9.6 THE LANDSCAPE COVER AND HETEROGENEITY INDICES......Page 249
9.7 STRUCTURAL INDICATORS AT THE LANDSCAPE LEVEL......Page 250
9.8 FUNCTIONAL LANDSCAPE INDICATORS......Page 251
9.9 CONCLUSIONS......Page 252
REFERENCES......Page 253
10.2 IMPORTANCE OF MONITORING IN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT......Page 258
10.3 REVIEW OF BIOMONITORING PROGRAMS......Page 261
10.4 USE OF EXISTING DATABASES......Page 271
10.6 CONCLUSION......Page 278
REFERENCES......Page 279
CONTENTS......Page 282
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 283
11.2 INDIVIDUAL BIOINDICATORS 11.2.1 Cholinesterase Inhibition......Page 284
11.2.2 Cytochromes P450......Page 285
11.2.3 Reproductive Problems......Page 286
11.2.4 Aberrations of Hemoglobin Synthesis......Page 287
11.2.6 Histopathological Effects......Page 288
11.2.8 Oxidative Damage......Page 289
11.2.11 Heat Stress Proteins......Page 290
11.2.12 Other......Page 291
REFERENCES......Page 294
II Contaminant Sources and Effects......Page 304
CONTENTS......Page 306
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 307
12.2 GENERAL TOXICOLOGY 12.2.1 Organophosphorus Pesticides......Page 308
12.2.3 Some Considerations......Page 309
12.3 ENVIRONMENTAL FATE AND HAZARD......Page 311
12.3.1 Organophosphorus Pesticides......Page 312
12.3.2 Carbamate Pesticides......Page 313
12.3.3 Wetlands......Page 315
12.3.4 Mosquito Control......Page 317
12.4.1 Comparative Toxicology......Page 318
12.4.2 Acute Environmental Hazard......Page 320
12.4.4 Sources of Exposure......Page 322
12.4.6 Toxic Interactions: Chemical and Environmental......Page 324
12.4.7 Diagnosis of Anticholinesterase Exposure......Page 325
12.5 SUBLETHAL ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARD 12.5.1 Subchronic and Behavioral Effects......Page 326
12.5.2 Chronic and Reproductive Effects......Page 327
12.6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 328
REFERENCES......Page 330
CONTENTS......Page 338
13.2 CHARACTERISTICS 13.2.1 Grouping......Page 339
13.2.4 Bioaccumulation......Page 340
13.2.5 Toxicity......Page 341
13.2.7 Interactions......Page 342
13.3 SOURCES, USE, AND EFFECTS 13.3.1 DDT and Metabolites......Page 343
13.3.2 Aldrin/Dieldrin......Page 346
13.3.3 Endrin......Page 348
13.3.5 Heptachlor......Page 349
13.3.6 Hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH)......Page 350
13.3.8 Dicofol......Page 351
13.3.12 Chlordecone......Page 352
13.5 CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES......Page 353
REFERENCES......Page 354
CONTENTS......Page 366
14.2 COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS 14.2.1 Petroleum......Page 367
14.2.2 PAHs......Page 368
14.3 SOURCES 14.3.1 Petroleum......Page 369
14.3.2 PAHs......Page 370
14.4.2 Physical and Chemical......Page 371
14.4.3 Biological......Page 372
14.4.4 Residence Time......Page 373
14.5 EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS 14.5.1 General......Page 374
14.5.2 Plants and Microbes......Page 375
14.5.3 Invertebrates......Page 376
14.5.4 Fish......Page 377
14.5.5 Reptiles and Amphibians......Page 378
14.5.6 Birds......Page 379
14.5.7 Mammals......Page 381
and Arabian Gulf Oil Spills......Page 382
14.6 SUMMARY......Page 383
REFERENCES......Page 385
CONTENTS......Page 398
15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 399
15.2.1 Atmospheric Emissions......Page 401
15.2.2 Lead Emissions into Water......Page 403
15.2.3 Lead in Soils and Sediments......Page 404
15.3.1 Plants......Page 406
15.3.2 Animals......Page 407
15.4.2 Animals......Page 410
15.5.1 Plants......Page 415
15.5.2 Animals......Page 416
15.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 423
REFERENCES......Page 424
16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 434
16.2 EVOLUTION OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL MERCURY PROBLEM......Page 435
16.3 GLOBAL-SCALE ENVIRONMENTAL CYCLING AND FATE......Page 438
16.4 MERCURY SPECIATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCENTRATIONS......Page 440
16.4.2 Aquatic Environments......Page 441
16.5 MERCURY METHYLATION IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 443
16.6 MERCURY-SENSITIVE ECOSYSTEMS......Page 445
16.7 BIOACCUMULATION, BIOMAGNIFICATION, AND BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS 16.7.1 Biomagnification in FoodWebs......Page 446
16.7.2 Fish......Page 450
16.7.3 Birds......Page 453
16.7.4 Mammals......Page 459
16.8 DEGRADATION OF ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES......Page 462
16.9 MERCURY POLLUTION — A CONTINUING SCIENTIFIC CHALLENGE......Page 464
16.10 SUMMARY......Page 465
REFERENCES......Page 468
CONTENTS......Page 490
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 491
17.2.1 Chemical Characteristics......Page 492
17.2.2 Environmental Sources and Occurrence......Page 493
17.2.3 Cycling......Page 494
17.3.1 Plants......Page 495
17.3.2 Invertebrates......Page 498
17.3.3 Fish......Page 499
17.3.4 Amphibians and Reptiles......Page 500
17.3.5 Birds......Page 502
17.3.6 Mammals......Page 505
17.4.2 Toxic Effects......Page 506
17.4.3 Interactions......Page 514
17.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 515
REFERENCES......Page 516
CONTENTS......Page 526
18.1.1 PCBs......Page 527
18.1.2 PCDDs and PCDFs......Page 528
18.2 SOURCES AND PATHWAYS OF PCBS IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 529
18.2.1 Release of PCBs into the Environment......Page 530
18.2.2 Aquatic and Terrestrial Fate of PCBs......Page 531
18.2.3 PCB Removal Processes......Page 536
IN THE ENVIRONMENT 18.3.1 Release of PCDDs and PCDFs into the Environment......Page 537
18.3.2 Aquatic and Terrestrial Fate of PCDDs and PCDFs......Page 541
18.3.3 PCDD and PCDF Removal Processes in Aquatic Systems......Page 546
18.4.3 Ambient Levels of PCBs in Soils......Page 547
18.5 AMBIENT LEVELS OF PCDDs AND PCDFs 18.5.1 Ambient Levels of PCDDs and PCDFs in Aquatic Biota......Page 548
18.5.4 Ambient Levels of PCDDs and PCDFs in Air......Page 551
18.6.1 Toxicological and Structural Similarities......Page 552
18.6.3 Effects Categories......Page 556
18.6.4 Wildlife......Page 558
18.7 SUMMARY......Page 574
REFERENCES......Page 576
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 600
19.2 GROSS INDICATORS OF ACUTE AQUATIC ORGANISM STRESS IN URBAN RECEIVING WATERS 19.2.1 Dissolved-Oxygen-Depletion Investigation......Page 603
19.2.2 Urban Runoff Effects on Receiving Water Contaminant Concentrations......Page 604
19.2.3 Reported Fish Kill Information......Page 605
19.2.4 Toxicological Effects of Stormwater......Page 606
19.3 SUBTLE (CHRONIC) EFFECTS OF STORMWATER DISCHARGES ON AQUATIC LIFE......Page 608
19.4 HABITAT EFFECTS CAUSED BY STORMWATER DISCHARGES......Page 612
19.4.1 Increased Flows from Urbanization......Page 613
19.4.2 Channel Modifications Due to UrbanWet Weather Flow Discharges......Page 615
19.5 STORMWATER CONTAMINATION OF SEDIMENTS AND INCREASED SEDIMENT DISCHARGES IN URBAN STREAMS......Page 620
19.5.1 Sediment Contamination Effects......Page 624
19.6 BIOASSESSMENTS AND OTHER WATERSHED INDICATORS AS COMPONENTS OF RECEIVING WATER EVALUATIONS......Page 625
19.6.1 U.S. National Perspective of Bioassessments......Page 626
19.6.2 Watershed Indicators of Receiving Water Problems......Page 627
19.7 SUMMARY OF URBAN-RUNOFF EFFECTS ON RECEIVING WATERS......Page 630
REFERENCES......Page 631
CONTENTS......Page 640
20.2.1 Types of Ionizing Radiation......Page 641
20.2.3 Units of Measurement......Page 642
20.3.2 Fuel Fabrication and Production Facilities......Page 643
20.3.3 Nuclear Power Reactors......Page 644
20.3.4 Weapons Production......Page 645
20.3.6 Reactor Accidents......Page 646
20.4 BEHAVIOR OF RADIONUCLIDES IN THE ENVIRONMENT......Page 647
20.5 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION......Page 648
20.6 EFFECTS OF RADIATION ON TERRESTRIAL POPULATIONS AND COMMUNITIES......Page 649
20.6.1 Plant Populations and Communities......Page 650
20.6.3 Small-Mammal Populations......Page 651
20.6.4 Avian Populations......Page 653
20.7.1 Plant Populations......Page 654
20.7.2 Invertebrate Populations......Page 655
20.7.3 Fish Populations......Page 656
20.7.4 Turtle Populations......Page 657
20.8 RADIOLOGICAL DOSE MODELS......Page 658
20.9 EFFECTS OF POWER PLANT COOLING SYSTEMS......Page 659
20.10 SUMMARY......Page 661
REFERENCES......Page 662
21.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 670
21.2 GLOBAL WARMING......Page 671
21.3 EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION ON SOURCES AND SINKS OF GREENHOUSE GASES 21.3.1 CARBON......Page 674
21.3.2 Methane, Nitrous Oxide, and Carbon Monoxide......Page 681
21.4 OPTIONS FOR INCREASING TERRESTRIAL CARBON STORAGE......Page 682
21.4.1 Count Only Those Sources and Sinks of Carbon that Result from Human Activity......Page 683
21.4.2 Count Only Those Resulting Directly from Human Activity......Page 684
21.4.3 Count Only Those Resulting from Afforestation, Reforestation, and Deforestation......Page 685
21.4.5 Count No Terrestrial Sources and Sinks of Carbon at All......Page 686
21.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION......Page 687
REFERENCES......Page 688
22.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 692
22.2 PATHOGENS AND DISEASES......Page 693
22.3 TRANSLOCATION OF PATHOGENS, HOSTS, AND VECTORS......Page 694
22.4 CONCENTRATION OF PATHOGENS......Page 696
22.5 DISEASE ASSOCIATED WITH CHANGED ENVIRONMENTS......Page 697
22.6 GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS......Page 698
REFERENCES......Page 699
23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 704
23.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING CONTAMINANT TOXICITY 23.2.1 Temperature......Page 705
23.2.2 Salinity, Water Hardness, and pH......Page 711
23.2.3 Oxygen Tension......Page 713
23.2.5 Photoperiod and Season......Page 715
REFERENCES......Page 716
III Case Histories and Ecosystem Surveys......Page 726
24.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 728
24.2.1 Acute Effects......Page 729
24.2.2 Latent Effects: Humans......Page 731
24.2.3 Latent Effects: Plants and Animals......Page 732
24.3.1 Soil and Vegetation......Page 737
24.3.2 Aquatic Life......Page 748
24.3.3 Wildlife......Page 749
24.3.4 Domestic Animals......Page 751
REFERENCES......Page 753
25.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 762
25.2 THE SWAINSON’S HAWK......Page 763
25.3 MONOCROTOPHOS......Page 764
25.4 ARGENTINE MORTALITY INCIDENTS 25.4.1 The 1995/1996 Austral Summer......Page 767
25.4.2 Quick Response Leads to Hawk Protection......Page 771
25.4.3 Regulatory Actions since the Incidents......Page 772
25.5 CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS AND PERSPECTIVE......Page 773
25.6 WILDLIFE AND PESTICIDES — INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION NEEDS......Page 774
25.7 SUMMARY......Page 775
REFERENCES......Page 776
26.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 780
26.2.2 Source of Lead (Lead Shot vs. Mining Activity Lead)......Page 781
26.2.4 The Sediment Ingestion Link......Page 782
26.3 LEAD EFFECTS ON BIRDS 26.3.1 Wild Populations Studied......Page 783
26.3.2 Field and Laboratory Test Comparisons......Page 787
REFERENCES......Page 789
27.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 792
27.2 DESCRIPTION OF EAGLE RIVER FLATS......Page 793
27.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF WHITE PHOSPHORUS......Page 795
27.4.1 Acute Toxicity of P4 in Birds......Page 796
27.4.2 Chronic and Subchronic Effects......Page 798
27.4.3 White Phosphorus in Tissues......Page 800
27.4.4 Reproductive Effects and Teratogenesis......Page 802
27.4.5 Secondary Toxicity......Page 804
27.5 HAZARD ASSESSMENT OF WHITE PHOSPHORUS TOXICITY AT EAGLE RIVER FLATS......Page 805
27.6 REMEDIATION EFFORTS AT EAGLE RIVER FLATS......Page 806
27.7 SUMMARY......Page 807
REFERENCES......Page 808
CONTENTS......Page 812
28.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 813
28.2 METHODS 28.2.1 Field Collections......Page 814
28.3 RESULTS......Page 816
28.3.1 Liver Tissue......Page 817
28.3.2 Eggs......Page 819
28.3.3 Whole Carcass Remainders......Page 820
28.3.4 Diet......Page 823
28.3.5 Biomarkers......Page 824
28.3.6 Reproduction Measures......Page 826
28.4 DISCUSSION 28.4.1 Liver Concentrations — Lead......Page 827
28.4.2 Biomarkers......Page 830
28.4.4 Other Trace Elements......Page 831
28.5 SUMMARY......Page 832
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 833
REFERENCES......Page 835
29.1 INTRODUCTION 29.1.1 The Hudson River — PCB Case History......Page 838
29.1.2 Hudson River Ecosystems......Page 840
29.1.3 PCBs and the Hudson Falls/Fort Edward Plants......Page 841
29.2.2 Fish and Aquatic Invertebrates......Page 843
29.2.3 Wildlife and the Terrestrial Ecosystem......Page 847
29.2.4 Other Contaminants and Stressors......Page 849
29.3 MITIGATION ACTIVITIES: PAST AND FUTURE......Page 850
29.4 SUMMARY......Page 852
REFERENCES......Page 853
CONTENTS......Page 858
30.2 CASE STUDY BACKGROUND......Page 859
30.2.1 Historic Releases to CFR......Page 860
30.4 AQUATIC RESOURCES AT RISK......Page 861
30.4.2 Toxicity of Metal-Contaminated Food Organisms to Fish......Page 862
30.4.3 Avoidance of Metals by Fish in the Laboratory......Page 863
30.5.1 Soil Physicochemical Characterizations and Metals Analysis......Page 864
30.5.2 Plant Studies to Evaluate Wetland and Upland Soils......Page 865
30.5.3 Animal Studies Completed for Terrestrial and Wetland Evaluations......Page 867
30.6.1 Defining Ecological Significan......Page 868
30.6.2 Terrestrial Habitat Findings......Page 869
30.7 SUMMARY......Page 872
REFERENCES......Page 873
IV Methods for Making Estimates, Predictability, and Risk Assessment in Ecotoxicology......Page 878
31.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 880
31.2 ENVIRONMENTAL TRANSPORT MECHANISMS 31.2.1 Atmospheric Transport......Page 881
31.2.2 Freshwaters......Page 883
31.2.3 Marine Transport......Page 885
31.3.1 Atmosphere–Land Surface Exchange......Page 886
31.3.3 Air–Sea Exchange......Page 888
31.3.4 Sediment–Water Exchange......Page 889
31.3.5 Solid–Solution Exchange......Page 892
31.4.1 Rate Expressions......Page 893
31.4.2 Environmental Lifetimes......Page 894
31.5.3 Hemispheric and Global Scales......Page 896
31.6 TEMPORAL TRENDS IN CONTAMINANT CONCENTRATIONS......Page 897
REFERENCES......Page 899
CONTENTS......Page 902
32.2 BIOACCUMULATION FROM SEDIMENTS 32.2.1 Determinants of Bioaccumulation......Page 903
32.2.4 Bioaccumulation of Organic Contaminants......Page 904
32.3 BIOCONCENTRATION FROM WATER 32.3.1 Bioconcentration Processes......Page 906
32.3.2 Estimation of Bioconcentration......Page 908
32.3.4 Bioconcentration of Metals......Page 909
32.4 BIOMAGNIFICATION AND TROPHIC TRANSFER 32.4.1 Overview......Page 910
32.4.2 Dietary Absorption......Page 911
32.4.4 Aquatic-Based Food Webs......Page 912
REFERENCES......Page 913
33.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 918
33.2.2 Effects of Hydrophobicity on Growth Inhibition Manifested by Aliphatic Saturated Alcohols, Primary Amines, and Aminoalkan......Page 919
33.3 DEVELOPING QSARS......Page 921
33.3.2 Chemical-Class-Based Approach......Page 922
33.3.3 Mode-of-Action-Based Approach......Page 923
33.4 UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES FOR QSARS TO PREDICT AQUATIC TOXICITY......Page 924
33.5 USES OF QSARS FOR PREDICTING AQUATIC TOXICITY......Page 926
33.5.2 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency......Page 927
33.6.1 Organic Chemicals......Page 928
REFERENCES......Page 929
34.1 GENESIS OF PREDICTIVE ECOTOXICOLOGY......Page 936
34.3 OPERATIONALIZING SOCIETAL GOALS 34.3.1 Endpoint Selection......Page 937
34.3.2 Relevance......Page 938
34.3.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratios......Page 939
34.3.4 Integrating Multiple Effects......Page 940
34.4 DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTIVE MODELS 34.4.1 Dose-Response Models......Page 941
34.4.3 Data Used to Develop Predictive Models......Page 942
34.4.4 Examples of Predictive Models in Ecotoxicology......Page 943
34.5 HOW ACCURATE ARE OUR PREDICTIONS?......Page 945
34.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 946
REFERENCES......Page 947
CONTENTS......Page 950
35.1 WHAT IS A POPULATION MODEL?......Page 951
35.2 HOW ARE MODELS OF USE IN ECOTOXICOLOGICAL STUDIES?......Page 952
35.3.2 What Type of Model Is Appropriate?......Page 953
35.3.4 Range of Applicability......Page 954
35.3.6 Sensitivity Analysis......Page 955
35.4 DISCRETE-TIME POPULATION MODELS......Page 956
35.4.1 Adding Realism......Page 957
35.4.2 Stable Population Analysis......Page 959
35.4.3 Sensitivity Analysis......Page 960
35.4.4 Deficiencies with Stale Analyses of Simple Matrix Models......Page 961
35.4.5 Life Table Response Experiments......Page 962
35.5.1 Sensitivity Analysis......Page 963
35.6.1 Survival......Page 964
35.6.2 Reproduction......Page 966
35.6.3 Relationships to External Factors......Page 967
35.7.1 Time-Series Analysis......Page 968
35.8 SUMMARY......Page 970
REFERENCES......Page 971
CONTENTS......Page 976
36.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 977
36.2 THE EPA’S GUIDELINES FOR ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT......Page 978
36.2.1 Planning the Risk Assessment......Page 979
36.2.2 Problem Formulation......Page 981
36.2.3 The Analysis Phase......Page 985
36.2.4 Risk Characterization......Page 989
36.3.1 Assessing Ecological Risks from Chemicals Using Probabilistic Methods......Page 992
36.3.2 Ecological Risk Assessment of Biological Stressors: Expanding Concepts of Exposure......Page 994
36.3.3 Evaluating Risks from Multiple Stressors......Page 996
36.4.1 Developing Management Objectives for Ecological Risk Assessment......Page 998
36.4.2 Ecological Risk Assessment for Watershed Management......Page 1000
36.4.3 Integrating Ecological Risk Assessment with Economic, Human Health, and Cultural Assessments......Page 1001
REFERENCES......Page 1003
CONTENTS......Page 1010
37.1.2 Previous Investigations......Page 1011
37.1.3 Objectives......Page 1014
37.2.3 Chemicals of Potential Ecological Concern......Page 1015
37.2.4 Assessment and Measurement Endpoints......Page 1016
37.2.5 Ecological Conceptual Site Model......Page 1017
37.2.6 Data Sources and Synthesis......Page 1019
37.2.7 Modeling......Page 1025
37.3 ANALYSIS 37.3.1 Exposure Characterization......Page 1026
37.3.2 Ecological Effects Characterization......Page 1030
37.4.1 Risk Estimation......Page 1031
37.4.3 Uncertainties/Data Limitations......Page 1035
37.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 1036
REFERENCES......Page 1037
38.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 1040
38.2.2 Can Ecosystem Health be Measured?......Page 1042
38.3 RESTORATION OF NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS ALREADY IMPACTED BY HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS AND OTHER ANTHROPOGENIC STRESSES......Page 1044
38.4 ESTABLISHING A PROTOCOL FOR INTERACTIONS BETWEEN RESTORATION ECOLOGISTS AND TOXICOLOGISTS......Page 1047
38.5 FINANCING ECOSYSTEM RESTORATION......Page 1048
38.6 DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEM......Page 1051
38.7 CONCLUSIONS......Page 1052
REFERENCES......Page 1053
V Special Issues in Ecotoxicology......Page 1056
CONTENTS......Page 1058
39.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND......Page 1059
39.1.1 General and Comparative Endocrinology......Page 1060
39.1.2 Mechanisms of Endocrine Modulation......Page 1062
39.2 SCREENING AND MONITORING FOR ENDOCRINE DISRUPTING CHEMICALS......Page 1064
Assays......Page 1065
Assays......Page 1066
39.3.1 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)......Page 1067
39.3.2 Polychlorinated and Polybrominated Biphenyls (PCBs and PBBs)......Page 1072
-Furans (PCDFs)......Page 1076
39.3.4 Organochlorine Pesticides and Fungicides......Page 1079
39.3.5 Non-Organochlorine Pesticides......Page 1084
39.3.6 Complex Environmental Mixtures......Page 1088
39.3.7 Metals......Page 1092
39.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 1095
REFERENCES......Page 1096
40.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 1124
40.2 CRITERIA FOR DETERMINING A POPULATION EFFECT......Page 1126
40.3 LEVELS OF EVIDENCE......Page 1127
40.3.1 Evidence for Direct Involvement......Page 1128
40.3.2 Sublethal Effects and Interactions between Contaminants and Other Factors......Page 1137
40.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 1144
REFERENCES......Page 1145
CONTENTS......Page 1154
41.2 GENETIC EFFECTS 41.2.1 Introduction......Page 1155
41.2.2 Types of DNA Modification......Page 1156
41.2.3 Detection of DNA Modification......Page 1157
41.2.7 Genotoxic Agents......Page 1158
41.3.2 Genetic Markers......Page 1159
41.4.1 Allozymes......Page 1160
41.4.2 Puget Sound, Washington......Page 1161
41.4.3 Sunfis......Page 1162
41.4.4 Mosquitofis......Page 1163
41.4.5 Kangaroo Rats......Page 1165
41.5 SUMMARY......Page 1166
REFERENCES......Page 1168
CONTENTS......Page 1174
42.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 1175
42.2 THE INHERENTLY UNCERTAIN FUTURE......Page 1176
42.3 ACKNOWLEDGING THE OBVIOUS AND ABANDONING DENIAL......Page 1177
42.4 INDUSTRIAL AND MUNICIPAL ECOLOGY......Page 1178
42.4.1 Mimicking Natural Cycles......Page 1179
42.4.3 Quality Control Monitoring......Page 1181
42.4.4 Cessation of Production of Persistent, Non-Degradable Compounds......Page 1183
42.4.5 Industrial Ecology Buffer Zones......Page 1184
42.5 NATURAL CAPITALISM......Page 1185
42.6.2 Increased Temporal and Spatial Scales......Page 1187
42.6.3 Achieving a Critical Mass of Qualified ersonnel......Page 1188
42.6.4 Demographic Change......Page 1190
42.6.6 Environmental Surprises......Page 1191
42.6.7 Design for Quality Environment......Page 1192
42.7 SUMMARY......Page 1193
REFERENCES......Page 1194
43.1 INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 43.1.1 Wildlife Declines......Page 1198
43.1.2 The Intensification of Agricultur......Page 1199
43.1.3 The Decline of the Grey Partridge in the United Kingdom......Page 1200
43.1.4 The Impact of Pesticides......Page 1201
43.2 CONSTRUCTING THE HYPOTHESIS FOR THE INDIRECT EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES......Page 1204
43.2.1 The Impact of Pesticides......Page 1205
43.3 TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS......Page 1206
43.4 INDIRECT EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES ON OTHER FARMLAND WILDLIFE 43.4.1 Benefits of Consevation Headlands for Other Farmland Wildl......Page 1208
43.5 SUMMARY......Page 1212
REFERENCES......Page 1213
CONTENTS......Page 1222
44.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 1223
44.1.2 Overview of Trace Elements Toxic to Fish and Wildlife......Page 1224
44.2 TOXICITY OF SELENIUM TO FISH AND ITS EFFECTS......Page 1225
44.3.1 Arsenic Interaction with Selenium......Page 1228
44.3.3 Mercury Interaction with Selenium......Page 1230
44.4.3 Cadmium......Page 1231
44.4.5 Chromium......Page 1232
44.4.8 Lead......Page 1233
44.4.13 Zinc......Page 1234
44.4.14 Mixtures of Inorganic Elements......Page 1235
44.5 INTERACTIVE EFFECTS OF NUTRITION AND OTHER ELEMENTS ON SELENIUM TOXICITY IN BIRDS......Page 1236
44.5.1 Different Dietary Forms of Selenium and Comparative Effects......Page 1237
44.5.2 Other Trace Elements......Page 1241
44.6.2 Calcium and Lead Shot Ingestion......Page 1243
44.6.3 Diet and Lead-Contaminated Mining Sediment in Waterfowl......Page 1245
44.6.5 Interactive Effects of Calcium on Lead, Cadmium, and Aluminum in Finches and Doves......Page 1246
44.7.2 Arsenic and Dietary Protein in Mallards......Page 1247
44.8 FIELD STUDY INTERACTIONS OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN WILDLIFE......Page 1248
44.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS......Page 1249
REFERENCES......Page 1250
CONTENTS......Page 1262
45.1.1 What Is Threatened and Endangered: Definition......Page 1263
45.2.1 Physical Pollution......Page 1265
45.3.1 Agricultural......Page 1266
45.3.2 Municipal and Industrial Pollution......Page 1267
Nicrophorus americanus......Page 1268
Gopherus agassizi......Page 1269
Gymnogyps californianus......Page 1270
45.4.2 Aquatic Organisms......Page 1271
Valvata utahensis......Page 1272
Cyprinodon diabolus......Page 1273
45.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 1274
REFERENCES......Page 1275
A......Page 1278
B......Page 1281
C......Page 1284
D......Page 1287
E......Page 1288
F......Page 1291
G......Page 1292
H......Page 1293
I......Page 1294
L......Page 1295
M......Page 1296
O......Page 1300
P......Page 1302
Q......Page 1307
S......Page 1308
T......Page 1312
U......Page 1313
W......Page 1314
Z......Page 1315