Handbook of e-Tourism

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
About the Editors
Contributors
Part I Foundation of e-Tourism
	1 e-Tourism: An Informatics Perspective
		Contents
		Introduction
		Short History of e-Tourism
		Remarks on e-Tourism Research
		On the Nature of Informatics
			Methodological Pillars
			The Importance of Informatics
		Informatics: Good New World?
		IT and Structural Change
		Future Developments in e-Tourism
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	2 Development of Information and Communication Technology: From e-Tourism to Smart Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		ICT Development from the Tourism Supplier's Perspective
			Digitalization of Tourism Operations
				Front Office Operations
				Back Office Operations
			Data-Driven Management
				Online Marketing
				Channel Management
				Service Personalization
				Environmental Sustainability
			Digital Ecosystems
				Intelligent Environment
				Autonomous Services
		ICT Development from the Tourist Perspective
			Technology Changes Pre-trip Behavior
			ICT Co-create In-trip Experiences
			ICT-Empowered Real-Time and Post-trip Sharing
		ICT Catalyze IT Skills Training and E-Learning
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	3 Drivers of e-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction: The Evolution of e-Tourism
		Proprietary Systems and Automation Era (1960 to 1995)
		Internet and Web 1.0 Era (1995–2010)
		WEB 2.0 and the Social Media (2005–2015)
		Ambient Intelligence (AmI) Tourism (2020–Future)
		Conclusions: e-Tourism Drivers
		References
	4 e-Tourism Research: A Review
		Contents
		Introduction
		Data and Methods
		Overview of e-Tourism Research Status
		Main e-Tourism Research Topics
		Discussion and Future Research
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	5 A Post-disciplinary Perspective on e-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Disciplines, Knowledge Production, and Enquiry
		Post-disciplinary Enquiry and Tourism
		e-Tourism as a Post-disciplinary Field of Study
		Concluding Remarks: On the Future of Post-disciplinary e-Tourism
		Cross-References
		References
	6 Consumer Behavior in e-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		State-of-the-Art Research in Consumer Behavior in the E-Tourism Era
			Pre-trip Phase
			On-site Tourism Experience
			Post-trip Evaluation Stage
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	7 Developments in German e-Tourism: An Industry Perspective
		Contents
		Introduction
		Historical Background
			German Innovators Seek Holidays for All
			Early Development Shaped by Cultural Differences
			American Airlines Begins Electronic Data Processing
			From Idea to System Provider in Germany
			START Becomes Amadeus, a European GDS
		The Situation Today
			Global Distribution Systems: A Blessing and a Curse
			Uniform Data Formats Are Missing
			New Players on the Market: Competition Becomes Global
			Packaged Tours Become Dynamic
		The Future
			NDC: A New Standard
			Google Travel
			Linked Data: Knowledge Graphs and Open Data
			Tourism 4.0: Robotics, Smart Destinations, Education, and Sustainable Effects
			Between Digital Detox, Slow Travel, Resonance Tourism, and VR
		Conclusion and Outlook
		Interview Partners
		Notes
		Cross-References
		References
	8 Digitalization and the Transformation of Tourism Economics
		Contents
		Introduction
		Research on the Tourism Economy and Its Evolution in Face of E-Tourism
		A New Tourist Demand Based on Information
		Digitalization for Competitive Improvement of the Tourism Offer
		Implications of the Digital Economy in the Relationship Between Tourism Supply and Demand
		The Tourism Labor Market in the Face of the Challenge of Automation
		Destinations and the Need for Open Data: Intelligence, Accessibility, and Sustainability
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
Part II Technologies in e-Tourism
	9 The Evolution of Online Booking Systems
		Contents
		Introduction
		From Computer Reservation Systems to Global Distribution Systems
		The Internet as a Global Virtual Data Network
		The World Wide Web as a Distributed Internet Multimedia Information System
			HTML as Description Language for the Multimedia Hypertext Documents of the WWW
				Cascaded Style Sheets as Additional Rule-Based Formatting Language for HTML
			JavaScript as Browser Programming Language and Browser Plug-Ins
			HTML Forms, Server-Side Scripts, and Web-Enabled Applications
		Internet Booking Engines as Self-Service Enablers in Tourism
		Integration of Legacy Booking Systems with Web Front Ends
		Touristic IBEs, Package Tour Comparison Systems, and Specialized Online Travel Agent WBEs
		Evolution from Mainframe via Distributed Web Services to Cloud Computing
		Synopsis: Automation, Customer-Oriented Self-service, and the Two Faces of Virtualization
		Cross-References
		References
	10 Advanced Web Technologies and E-Tourism Web Applications
		Contents
		Introduction
		Dynamic Packaging Engines as Enablers of Mass Customization in Tourism
		Web Content Management Systems, Content Syndication, and Web 2.0
		XML as a Base Technology for Standardized Data Exchange Interfaces
			XML as Inter-Application Interface Technology: Web Services and Mash-Ups
			AJAX as Enabler for Asynchronous Data Interchange Between Browser and Web Server
		The Semantic Web for Distributed Knowledge Representation
		Web Portals as User-Centered Integration of Web Applications for Hybrid Business Models
		Online Booking Engines and Corporate Travel Management Systems
		Web Search Engines and Travel Meta-Search Engines
		Mobile Web, Apps, and Augmented Reality
		From Destination Management Systems and Portals to Smart Destination Service Platforms
		Further Impacts and the Future of Advanced E-Tourism Web Applications
		Cross-References
		References
	11 Web Information Retrieval and Search
		Contents
		Introduction
		Information Retrieval
			Retrieval Models
			Queries
			Indexing
			Retrieval Functions
			Weighting of Terms
			Evaluation of Information Retrieval Systems
		Information Retrieval in the Web
			Crawling
			Automated Indexing
			The Relevance of Search Results
			User Profiling
		Metasearch
			Operation of a Metasearch Engine
			Search Engine Interfaces
			Steps in Metasearch
		Web Site Optimization
			Search Engine Optimization
			Search Engine Marketing
		Bias in Web Search
		History of Information Retrieval in Tourism
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	12 Mobile Applications for e-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Foundations of Mobile e-Tourism Applications
			Historical Overview
			Development of Mobile Applications
			Context, Localization, and Sensors
			User Modeling, Personalization, and Recommendation
			Mobile User Interfaces
		A Taxonomy of Mobile e-Tourism Applications
			Information and Search
			Booking
			On-Trip Services
			Sharing and Interaction
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	13 Internet of Things and Ubiquitous Computing in the Tourism Domain
		Contents
		Introduction
		From Mobile Services to IoT-Enabled Ubiquitous Computing
		The Enabling Technologies
			Identification
			Location Detection
			Action  and Environment Sensing
		The Design Choices
		Novel Scenarios for the Tourism Domain
			Information and Services Requested via Physical Actions
			Beyond the Personal Screen: Adaptive Information Kiosks, Intelligent Shop Windows, and Soundscapes
			Interaction with Smart Objects
			Tangible Output
			Exploiting IoT for Personalization
			Exploiting IoT for Extended Data Analytics Capabilities
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		Notes
		References
	14 Augmented, Virtual, and Mixed Reality in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Augmented Reality
		Technological Background
		Application of AR
			Pre-travel Phase
			On Trip Phase
			Post-travel Phase
		Virtual Reality
			Immersion and Presence
		Technological Background
		Application of VR
			Pre-travel Phase
			On-Trip Phase
			Post-travel Phase
		Mixed Reality
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	15 Electronic Data Interchange and Standardization
		Contents
		Introduction
		UN/EDIFACT
		Open Travel Alliance
		Message Transport
			EDIFACT Messaging
			OTA Messaging
			Parties Involved in the Data Exchange
		The Role of the Service Provider
		Classic EDI and WebEDI
			Classic EDI
			WebEDI
			A Comparison
		EDI Projects
		The Core Issues and Future Trends
		Cross-References
		References
	16 Semantic Web Empowered E-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Semantic Web in a Nutshell
		Semantic Web of Content
			Schema Definition Languages
				Resource Description Framework (RDF)
				RDF-Schema
				Web Ontology Language (OWL2)
				Simple Knowledge Organization System (SKOS)
			Annotation Languages
				Microformats
				Microdata
				Resource Description Framework in Attributes (RDFa)
				JavaScript Object Notation in Linked Data (JSON-LD)
			Ontologies
				Dublin Core
				Friend of a Friend (FOAF)
				GoodRelations
				Schema.org
				Further Types
		Semantic Web of Data: Linked Open Data
		Semantic Web of Services: Semantic Web Services
			Heavyweight Semantic Web Services
			Lightweight Semantic Web Services
			Illustration: A Hotel Booking Chatbot Based on Schema.org Actions
		Knowledge Graph Technology
			Knowledge Creation
			Knowledge Hosting
			Knowledge Curation
				Knowledge Assessment
				Knowledge Cleaning
				Knowledge Enrichment
			Knowledge Deployment
		Use Cases in E-Tourism
			Touristic Chatbots and Intelligent Personal Assistants
			Open Touristic Knowledge Graph
		Conclusions
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		Notes
		References
	17 Big Data Technologies
		Contents
		Introduction
		Definition of Big Data
		Hadoop and MapReduce Expedite Volume
		NoSQL Databases Promote Variety
		Hadoop and Velocity
		The Hadoop Ecosystem
		Big Data Infrastructure Vendors
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	18 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
		Contents
		Introduction
		Artificial Intelligence Definitions and Characteristics
		Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning
			Machine Learning Algorithms
			Machine Learning Models
			Machine Learning Limitations
		Artificial Intelligence Tools and Applications
			Artificial Intelligence in Tourism
		Artificial Intelligence Adoption
			Future Trends
			Artificial Intelligence Risks
		Cross-References
		References
	19 Recommender Systems in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Recommender System Components
			Preference Elicitation
			Scoring and Ranking Recommendations
				Collaborative Filtering
				Content-Based
				Knowledge-Based
				Community- and Trust-Based
				Hybrid Recommender Systems
				Ranking
			Recommendation Refinement
		Key Recommendation Dimensions for Tourism RSs
			Context-Awareness
			Recommendations for Groups
			Sequential Recommendations
		Open Issues and Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	20 Blockchain and Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Blockchain Technology
		The Impact of the Blockchain on Tourism
			Previous Research
			Blockchain Applications in Tourism
				Inventory Management
				Maintenance and Tracking
				Content, Reservations, and Ticketing
				Payments and Tax Compliance
				Loyalty Programs and Personalized Marketing
				Tokenization and Dedicated Coins
				Identity, Credential Management, and Privacy
				Baggage Tracking
				Smart Contracts
				Dapps for Smart Tourism
				Disintermediation
				Coordination and Coopetition
			Blockchain and Tourism: An Academic Perspective
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	21 Business Intelligence in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		A Business Intelligence Architecture
		Data Sources
		Data Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)
			Data Extraction
			Data Transformation
			Load
			Chronology of the ETL Process
			Update Strategies
			ETL Tools
		Data Warehousing
			Traditional Data Warehouse Approaches: Normalized vs. Dimensional Modeling
			Data Lakes
		Data Analysis and Visualization
			Reporting
			OLAP
			Data Mining
			Structuring a Tourism MIS
		Case Study: DMIS Halland
			Data Sources and Extraction
			Data Warehouse
			Data Mining
			Reporting and Dashboards
			Technical Architecture
		Expected Future Developments
			Big Data
			Operational Business Intelligence
			Real-Time Business Intelligence
		Cross-References
		References
Part III e-Tourism Methods
	22 Data Mining and Predictive Analytics for E-tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Patterns, Applications, and Processes
			Pattern Types
			How to Choose the Technique/Tool That Best Suits the Problem Type
				Class/Concept Description
				Frequent Patterns, Associations, and Correlations
				Predictive Analysis
				Cluster Analysis
				Outlier Analysis
				Data Preprocessing
			How to Conduct a Data Mining Project
		Conclusion
			Challenges and Limitations of Data Mining Projects
			Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	23 Content Analysis of Online Travel Reviews
		Contents
		Introduction
		Online Travel Reviews as a Data Source for Research in Hospitality and Tourism
			Destination Image Analytics Through Online Travel Reviews
			Selecting Sources of Online Travel Reviews
			Data Collection
			Data Arrangement
			Content Analysis Procedures
			Unit of Analysis
			Term Frequency
			Categorization
			Metrics
		Case Study: Impacts of Serious Events on Barcelona's Destination Image During the Second Half of 2017
			Data Collection and Arrangement
			Measuring Destination Image Aspects
			Descriptive Aspect
			Appraisive Aspect
			Advisory Aspect
			Results and Discussion
			Descriptive Aspect
			Appraisive and Advisory Aspects
			Discussion
			Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	24 Network Science and e-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Network Science Overview
		Software and Tools
		Network Science in e-Tourism
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	25 Spatial Analytics and Data Visualization
		Contents
		Introduction
		Exploratory Analytics
			A-Spatial Exploratory Methods
			Spatial Network Analysis
			Spatial Clustering
			Point Pattern Analysis
			Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (ESDA)
			Sequence Analysis
		Explanatory Analytics
			A-Spatial Explanatory Methods
			Spatial Interaction Model
			Spatial Econometrics
			Geographically Weighted Regression
		Geovisualization
			Choropleth Maps
			Proportional Symbol Maps
			Density and Interpolation Maps
			Flow Maps
			Space-Time Maps
		Challenges and Future Directions
			Tourist Identification
			Spatial-Temporal Analysis
			Computation Burden
			Web-Based GIS
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	26 The Hive Mind at Work: Crowdsourcing E-Tourism Research
		Contents
		Introduction
			The Building Blocks of Crowdsourcing Research
			A Crowd of Participants
				Crowdsourcing Platforms
			Research Types
			Crowdsourcing Research in E-Tourism
			Crowdsourcing E-Tourism Research: Guidelines
				Determine Research Type(s)
				Defining a Crowdsourced Population
				Selecting a Crowdsourcing Platform
				Recruiting Participants
				Managing the Crowd
				Ethical Issues
				Report
			Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	27 Tourism Design: Articulating Design Beyond Science
		Contents
		Introduction
		Design Science and Design Thinking
			Design (Science) and the Nature of Problems
			The Legacy of DS in Design Thinking and Service Design
			Critiques and Responses to DS and Design Thinking
		Design Is an Engagement with Unknowable Futures
		Alternatives to Design Science
		Implications and Conclusion
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	28 Log File Analysis
		Contents
		Introduction
		Basic Log File Mechanism
		Basic Tagging System Mechanism
		A Generic Log File Analyzer
		LFA Requirements and Specifications
			Nonfunctional Requirements
			Functional Requirements
			Database Design
			Input-Process-Output Outline
		Types of Log File Analyzers
			Standard Analyzer
			Extended Log File Analyzer
			Hybrid Analyzer
			Hybrid Analyzer with Real-Time Extensions
			NRT Analyzer with Social Media Integration
		Conclusions
		References
	29 Eye-Tracking Technology for Measuring Banner Advertising Efficacy on E-Tourism Websites: A Methodological Proposal
		Contents
		Introduction: Eye-Tracking Concept and Typologies
		The Eye-Tracking Technology
			A Brief Historical Outline
			How Eye-Tracking Methodologies Operate in the Study of Consumer Behavior
			Critical Issues and Possible Applications of Eye-Tracking Technology in the Marketing Sphere
		Banner Advertising on E-Tourism Websites
		Theoretical Background: Determining Factors of Banner Advertising
			Causes and Consequences of Banner Blindness
			Determining Factors of Attention and Banner Recall
		Practical Application: Research Questions, Methodology, Results, and Analysis
			Research Questions
			Methodology
				Fieldwork and Eye-Tracking System Used
				Experimental Design
				Measurement Scales and Data Analyses Applied
			Analysis of Results
				Descriptive Analysis: Visual Attention and Banner Recall
				Banner Blindness: Analysis by E-Tourism Website
				Explanation of Memory Based on Visual Attention
				Moderating Effect of CE and Banner Type
		Final Discussion, Implications, Limitations, and Future Research
			Conclusions
			Implications and Recommendations
			Limitations and Future Research
		Appendix A: Areas of the Travel 2.0 e-Tourism Web Pages
		Appendix B
		Index
		Cross-References
		References
	30 User-Centered Design
		Contents
		Introduction
		Sociotechnology as a Principle
		User-Centered Design
		User-Centered Design Methods
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	31 E-Tourism Research, Cultural Understanding,and Netnography
		Contents
		Introduction
		ABriefHistory:EvolvingDefinitionsofNetnographyforEvolvingSocialTechnologies
		Understanding Netnography Today
		Comparing Big Data and Netnography Approaches
		E-Tourism and Netnography: a Natural Fit
		Applying Netnography to E-Tourism Research
		Concluding Thoughts About Netnography and E-Tourism
		Cross-References
		References
	32 Mobile Ethnography in Tourism and Hospitality: Concept, Tools, and Applications
		Contents
		Introduction
		Ethnography Traditions and Mobile Ethnography
		Types of Mobile Ethnographic Studies
			Studies Adopting Real-Time Data Collection
			Historical Data Collection
			Methodology Studies
			Literature Reviews
		Tools and Scopes
		Advantages and Opportunities
			Reduced Average Cost
			Reduced Effort and Skills from Participants
			Validity and Credibility
			Augmented Effect of Multi-types of Data
			More Possibilities
		Concerns and Limitations
			Difficulties and Bias in Data Collection
			Challenges in Data Analysis
			Privacy
		Concluding Remarks on Mobile Ethnography and Media Convergence
		Cross-References
		References
	33 Experimental Research in E-Tourism: A Critical Review
		Contents
		Introduction
		Literature Review
			Review Articles in the Tourism Literature
			Fundamentals of Experiments
		Methodology
			Dimensions Included in the Review
			Literature Search Criteria
			Filtering Criteria
			Coding Procedure
		Results
			Article Characteristics
			Research Design
			Sample Characteristics
			Data Analysis
			Technology-Assisted Experiment
		Discussions of Findings
			Article Characteristics
			Research Design
			Sample Characteristics
			Data Analysis
			Advanced Technology Used to Assist Experiments
		Implications and Limitations
		References
	34 Website Evaluation Frameworks: A Review of the Hospitality and Tourism Field from 1996 to 2019
		Contents
		Introduction
			Collection of Articles Related to Tourism Website Evaluation
			Categories of Collected Articles
		Evaluation Frameworks
			Analysis of Consumer and Practitioner Views
			Mathematical Evaluation Method
			Software Automated Evaluation Method
			Manual Computation Evaluation Method
		Conclusion and Discussion
		Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	35 User Modelling in E-Tourism: A Human-Computer Interaction Perspective
		Contents
		Introduction
			Why User Modelling in Tourism?
			Why an HCI Perspective?
		Approaches to User Modelling in E-Tourism
			Teleological Considerations
			Forms of Data Acquisition
			Levels of Maturity
		The Evolution of User Modelling
			Static User Models
			Stereotype-Based User Models
			Dynamic User Models
			Highly Adaptive User Models
			Hybrid User Models
			HCI-Related User Modelling
		User Experience Aspects of Applications of User Modelling
		Discussion
			Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	36 Market Segmentation for e-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Market Segmentation Analysis
		Weaknesses of the Traditional Approach to Market Segmentation Analysis
		Market Segmentation Analysis in e-Tourism
		The Future Opportunities for Market Segmentation Analysis
			Transitioning from Self-Report Data to Observational Data
			Transitioning from One-Off Cross-Sectional Data Collection to Continuous Data Collection
		Conclusions
		References
	37 Visual Methods and Visual Analysis in Tourism Research
		Contents
		Introduction
		Methods of Visual Analysis
			Visual Semiotics
			Iconography, Iconology, and Image-Type Analysis
			Quantitative Visual Analysis
		Use of Visuals in Research Processes
			Visual Elicitation
			Visitor-Employed Photography
			Visual-Sorting and Visual Q-Sorts
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	38 Compositional Data Analysis in E-Tourism Research
		Contents
		Introduction
			Compositional Research Questions or Compositional Data?
			Composition Definition
			Fine-Tuning the Research Questions
			Why Are Classical Statistical Techniques Inappropriate?
		Compositional Data Analysis in Practice
			Log-Ratio Transformations
			Basic Statistical Concepts
				Center
				Association
				Total Variance
				Distance
			Data Preprocessing
				Zero Replacement
				Multivariate Outlier Detection
			Compositional Principal Component Analysis and the CoDa Biplot
			Compositional Cluster Analysis
			Limitations and Extensions
			Example
				Data
				Results
		Conclusion
		Appendix: CoDaPack Menus Used for the Example
		Cross-References
		References
Part IV Individual & Groups
	39 Travel Information Search
		Contents
		Introduction
		Perspectives on Travel Information Search
		Factors Influencing Travel Information Search
		Travel Information Search on the Internet
		Changing Conditions of Travel Information Search
		Implications and Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	40 Group Decision-Making and Designing Group Recommender Systems
		Contents
		Introduction
		Group Decision-Making Process
			Means to Identify Influence in Groups
			Social Influence
		Group Recommender Systems
		Group Recommender Systems in Tourism
		Case Studies
			Case Study 1
			Case Study 2
				The Effect of Preferences
				The Effect of Personality and Travel-Related Types
				The Effect of Social Relationships
				Predicting the Group Decision-Reaching Approach
		Future Research Challenges
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	41 Acceptance and Adoption of eTourism Technologies
		Contents
		Introduction
		Determinants of eTourism Technology Adoption
		Theoretical Foundations of the Existing eTourism Technology Acceptance Research
			Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
			Theory of Interpersonal Behavior (TIB)
			Model of Goal-Directed Behavior (MGB)
			Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
			Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT)
			Technology Readiness Indices: TRI and TRI 2.0
			Flow
		Mainstream Technology Acceptance Models
			TAM++ Models
				Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
				Motivation Model (MM)
				Decomposed Theory of Planned Behavior (DTPB)
				TAM2
				TAM3
				Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT)
				UTAUT2
			Model of PC Utilisation (MPCU)
			Adaptations of SCT
			Adaptations of DIT
			Adaptions of TRI
		Expected Future Developments
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	42 Tourists and Augmented and Virtual Reality Experiences
		Contents
		Introduction
		Definition of Terms
		Acceptance of VR and AR by Tourists
		Use Moments for VR and AR
		VR/AR for Travelling Users
			Pre-Travel Phase
			During the Trip
			Post-Travel Phase
		VR/AR for Non-travelling Users
		Gaps, Influence on the Tourism Sector, and Expected Future Developments
			Gaps and Future Research
			Influence of IT-Enabled Experiences on the Tourism Sector
			The Future
		Cross-References
		References
	43 User Experience and Usability: The Case of AugmentedReality
		Contents
		Introduction
		Usability
			Defining Usability
			How to Assess and Evaluate the Usability
			Content Quality and Inter-cultural Issues
			Toward a Fruitful Interaction Between Digital Analytics and Usability
		Usability and Augmented Reality in Tourism
			Outlining New Usability Paradigms in AR
			Extended Usability Study Grid for AR in Tourism
			Best Practices in AR for Tourism
		Outlook and Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	44 Trust in E-Tourism: Antecedents and Consequences of Trust in Travel-Related User-Generated Content
		Contents
		Introduction
		Trust in Tourism-Related ICT
			Theories and Frameworks for Understanding Trust in Tourism-Related ICT
			E-Tourism and Trust
		Antecedents of Trust in Travel-Related UGC
			Source Factors
			Message Factors
			Channel Factors
			Receiver Factors
			Contextual Factors
		Consequences of Trust in Travel-Related UGC
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	45 Smart Tourists and Intelligent Behavior
		Contents
		Introduction
		Intelligence
			Foundation Approaches to Intelligence
			Additional Perspectives
			Overview
		Intelligent Tourists
		Learning and Intelligent Tourists
		Actions to Boost Intelligent Tourist Behaviour
			Legal and Economic Levers
			Questioning Information Provision
			Promoting Smart Use of Space
			A Better Tourist Image
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	46 Interactive and Context-Aware Systems in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Interactive and Conversational Systems in Tourism
			Preference and Needs Elicitation Phase
				Fill-Out Forms
				Conversational Approaches
				Special Purpose Interfaces
				Rating Interfaces
			Result Presentation Phase
				Result List Presentation and Visualization
				Explanation
				Feedback and User Control
				Proactive Approaches
		Context Awareness of Systems in Tourism
			Background
			Application Examples
				Tour and Journey Planning
				POI Recommendation
				Next-in-Sequence Recommendation
		Expected Future Developments
			Increased Context Awareness Based on Various Types of Data
			Alternative Forms of Preference Elicitation
			Persuasive User Interfaces
			Privacy and Ethical Issues
		Summary
		Cross-References
		References
Part V Organization & Enterprise
	47 Strategic Use of Information Technologies in Tourism: A Review and Critique
		Contents
		Introduction
		Strategic Use of ICT in Tourism
		Impact of ICT on Business Value and Organizational Performance
		Unraveling the ICT Productivity Paradox in Tourism
		Critical Discussion
		Conclusion and Research Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
	48 Management and Leadership for Digital Transformation in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Digital Transformation in Tourism and Change Management
		Management and Leadership in e-Tourism
			Knowledge Sharing and Management in e-Tourism
			Destination Management and ICTs
			Digital Leadership in the Era of Smart Tourism
		Critical Reflections for Digital Transformation Research in Tourism
		Research Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
	49 E-Business Models in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Business Models and the Internet
			Origins and Definitions
			Typologies for E-Business Models
		Development of E-Business Models in Tourism
			Starting Conditions
			The Dynamic Early Years 1993–2000
			The Social Years 2001–2008
			The Platform Years 2009–2019
			Overall Development and Theoretical Issues
		Expected Future Development
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	50 Service Management in the E-Tourism Era
		Contents
		Introduction
		State-of-the-Art Research in Service Management in the E-Tourism Era
			Customer-Provider Interaction
				Tourists' Intention and Adoption of New ICT Technology
				The Role of Web 2.0 in Shaping Firms-Tourists Interaction
			Customer Relationship Management
				The Increasing Role of ICT in CRM Strategies
				The Use of Social Media for CRM Optimization: Social-CRM
			Big Data as a Source for CRM Strategies
			Service Recovery Process
				The Critical Role of Negative EWOM for Recovery Strategies
				Effective Managerial Responses: Content and Writing Styles
		From Design to Innovation in E-Tourism Service Management
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	51 Destination Management Organization's Emotional Branding Communication: Challenges and Opportunitiesin Social Media
		Contents
		Introduction
		Literature Review
			Destination Branding
			Destination Emotional Brand Communication
			Social Media Brand Communication and Engagement
		Exemplary Case Study and Comparative Analysis
			Case Study: Amsterdam
			Comparative Analysis
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	52 Revenue Management and E-Tourism: The Past, Present, and Future
		Contents
		Introduction
		Concept, Strategies, and Characteristics of Revenue Management
		RM Applications in Different Tourism Sectors
		Current Issues and Expected Future Developments in HospitalityRevenue Management
			Key Performance Indicators
			Technology and Data
			Organization and Human Resources
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	53 e-Supply Chain Management in Tourism Destinations
		Contents
		Introduction
		Supply Chain Management (SCM)
		Tourism Supply Chain Management (TSCM)
		e-Supply Chain Management
		e-Supply Chain Management in Tourism Destinations
		Summary and Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	54 Digital Marketing in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Digital Marketing in Tourism: Concepts and Developments
		The Corporate Website
		Traffic Building
			Search Engine Marketing
			Display Advertising
			Content Marketing
			Email Marketing
		Planning and Implementing Digital Marketing Campaigns
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	55 Use of GIS and Remote Sensing in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Geospatial Functions and Major Application Areas
			Proximity Analysis
			Network Analysis
			Overlay Analysis
			Temporal Change Analysis
			Statistical Analysis
			Image Analysis
			Three-Dimensional Visualization
		GIS Application in Wildlife and Tourism Management
		A GIS Application for Maasai Mara Game Reserve Ecosystem Management
			Understanding the Challenge to the Mara Ecosystem and Its Tourism Impact
			Wildlife Location Suitability and Tourism Pressure on the Maasai Mara Game Reserve
		A GIS Application for Ecosystem Management in the Nairobi National Park
			Infrastructural Development and Habitat Fragmentation
			Human Settlement and Mining Activities
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	56 Social Media Approaches and Communication Strategies in Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		From Information to Engagement: A Paradigm Shift in Online Communication
			Online Relationship Marketing (ORM)
			Customer Engagement
			Travel and Tourism Companies' Social Media Approaches
			Social Media Customer Care (SMCC)
			Improving Travelers' Engagement Through Social Media
			A Fully Integrated Approach: Social CRM
			Barriers That Limit the Adoption of Social Media in Travel and Tourism Companies
			Implications for Improving Social Media Marketing in Tourism
		Conclusion and Future Research
		Cross-References
		References
	57 The Voice of Major E-Tourism Players: An Expedia Group Perspective
		Contents
		Introduction
			Overview of Expedia Group and the Online Travel Distribution Landscape
				The Traveler Online Booking Journey
			Business Model and OTA Value Proposition
				Value Proposition for Travelers
				Value Proposition for Suppliers
			New Consumer Interaction Models
		Voice and OTAs
		Recommendation Systems for Online Travel
			Performance of Real-Time OTA Recommendations
			Recommendation Quality and Bots
			Personalization
				Embeddings
			Multidimensional Considerations for Recommendations
		Automated Content Management for OTAs
			Text
			Images
		Revenue Management
			Revenue Management and Forecasting
		COVID-19 and Initial Responses
		Conclusions and Outlook
		Cross-References
		References
	58 Information and Communication Technology in Event Management
		Contents
		Introduction
		Information and Communication Technologies and the Domains of Event Management
			Administration Domain
		Secure Mobile and RFID Ticketing
		Secure Virtual Payment Methods
		Blockchain
			Design Domain
		Festivalscape
			Livestreaming
		Holographic Technology
			Marketing Domain
		Social Media
		Crowdfunding
			Operations Domain
		Waste Management and Sustainability
		Crowd Management
			Risk Domain
		Drone Surveillance
		RFID Tracking
		ICT and the Event Attendees' Experiences
			Communitas
			Liminality
			Sense of Place
			Memorable Tourism Experiences
			Co-creation
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	59 Technology-Assisted Mindfulness in the Co-creation of Tourist Experiences
		Contents
		Introduction
		The Foundations of Meditative Mindfulness
		Technology-Assisted Mindfulness
		Meditative Mindfulness and Digital Wellbeing: An Organizational Perspective and Responsibilities
		Approaches to Embrace Technology-Assisted Mindfulness When Co-creating Tourist Experiences
		The Potential Contribution of Tourism Providers to Technology-Assisted Mindful Experience Co-creation
		Further Research
		Concluding Remarks
		Cross-References
		References
	60 E-Tools for Tourism Innovation Management:A New Typology
		Contents
		Introduction
		Conceptual Framework
		Developing a Typology
		Key Features in Innovation E-tools and Definitions
		E-tools in a Processual Context
		Discussion
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
		Analyzed e-tools
Part VI Network & Market
	61 The Diffusion of Information and Communication Technologies in the Tourism Sector
		Contents
		Introduction
		Elements of Diffusion Models
			The S-Shape of Diffusion Curve
			Rogers Model: Normal Distribution Model
			The Bass Model: Combined Effects: Innovation and Imitation
			Logistic Model
		Innovation Dynamics in the Tourism Sector: Adoption of Web 1.0 Property Website by the Accommodation Sector in Switzerland
		Conclusion and Summary
		Expected Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	62 Sharing and Platform Economy in Tourism: An Ecosystem Review of Actors and Future Research Agenda
		Contents
		Introduction
		Sharing Economy: Conceptualization, Features, Tourism Research, and Gaps
		The Platform Side
		The Demand Side: The Seekers
		The Supply Side: The Providers
		The Environment and Destination Side
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	63 Digital Ecosystems, Complexity, and Tourism Networks
		Contents
		Introduction
		Complex Tourism Digital Ecosystems
			Digital Ecosystems
			DBE as a Complex Adaptive System
			A Short Reminder on Network Analysis
			Dynamic Processes
		Exploring Tourism Digital Ecosystems: A Multiple Case
		Concluding Remarks
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	64 Value Co-creation in Dynamic Networks and E-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Value Co-creation
		Tourism System and Networks
		Dynamic Networks
		E-Tourism and Network Technologies
		Integrative Framework
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
Part VII Policy, Regulation & Ethics
	65 Data Privacy and the Travel Sector
		Contents
		Introduction
		Background
		The European Approach to Privacy Protection
		General Data Protection Regulation 2016 GDPR
		Data Privacy Development Outside Europe
			Implication for Travel Companies
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	66 Cybersecurity in Travel and Tourism: A Risk-BasedApproach
		Contents
		Introduction
		Understanding the Cyber Risk Landscape
			Threat Actors and Their Motives
				State-Sponsored Actors
				Activists (Hacktivists)
				Organized Crime Groups and Black Hats
				Inadvertent and Malicious Insiders
			Types of Attack and Attack Vectors
				Cognitive Hacks
				Malware Attacks
				POS (Endpoint) Attacks
				Ransomware Attacks
				Botnet/DDoS Attacks
				Attacks on Third-Party Service Providers
				Wi-Fi Network/Website Compromise
		Building Cybersecurity Capability
			Cybersecurity Governance
			Setting Priorities: What Matters Most?
			Cybersecurity Strategy, Mechanisms, and Controls
				The Human Element
				Likelihood Management
				Consequence Management
			Systems' Testing and Reviewing
		Future Cybersecurity Developments in Travel and Tourism
		Cross-References
		References
	67 e-Government and Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Interactions Between Government, Tourism, and ICTs
			Context
			Overview of Six e-Government Relationships Applied to Tourism
				Government-to-Government (G2G)
				Government-to-Business (G2B)
				Government-to-Nonprofit Organization (G2N)
				Government-to-Citizen (G2C)
				Government-to-Visitor (G2V)
				Government-to-Employee (G2E)
		e-Government for Tourism Case Studies
			Municipal Wi-Fi Networks at the Service of Tourists
				``WiFi Lugano''
				Data Collection and Analysis
				Five Usage Profiles
				Implications of a MWN for a City's Tourism Strategy
			Exploration of How National Tourism Strategy Plans Address e-Tourism Aspects
				Methodology
				Results
				Expected Future Developments
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	68 Information and Communication Technology for Sustainable Tourism Development
		Contents
		Introduction
		ICT and Sustainable Tourism
		ICT and the Sustainable Tourism Planner
		ICT for the Sustainable Tourist
		ICT for Sustainable Tourism in Local Communities
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	69 e-Learning in Tourism Education
		Contents
		Introduction
		Tourism and Education
		Workforce Needs in Tourism and Hospitality
		e-Learning Dimensions
			Media and Technologies
			Space and Time
				Delivery Scenarios and Trends
		e-Learning Applications in the Tourism Domain
			Academic Institutions
			Industry at Large
				Tourism and Hospitality Companies
				Public Agencies
				Independent Providers
		Open Challenges and Future Development
		Cross-References
		References
	70 Technology-Enabled Learning
		Contents
		Introduction
		Technology and the Tourism Curriculum
		Technology and Tourism Pedagogy
			Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)
			Simulations
			Mobile Learning
		Technology and Assessment
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	71 IT and Well-Being in Travel and Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Defining Well-Being
		Technology and Well-Being
		Digital Detox
		Technology Trends Enhancing Well-Being in Travel and Tourism
			Virtual Reality (VR)
			Augmented Reality (AR)
			Internet of Things (IoT)
			Artificial Intelligence (AI)
			Facial Recognition Technology
		Conclusion and Future Directions
		Cross References
		References
	72 E-Tourism Curriculum
		Contents
		Introduction
			The Tourism Curriculum Framework
		State-of-the-Art: Research on e-Tourism Curriculum Design
		IFITT e-Tourism Curriculum Initiatives
			IFITT e-Tourism Knowledge Map
			IFITT e-Tourism Curriculum
			ICT and Tourism: Theoretical Foundations
			ICT Usage in Tourism: Overview & Case Studies
			Recent ICT Trends and Application Areas in Tourism
		Summary and Conclusions
		Exepected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
	73 E-Tourism as a Tool for Socio-economic Development
		Contents
		Introduction
		Tourism and Developing Countries
			Community-Based Tourism: The Context of Action
		E-Tourism for Development
			The Main Components of e-Tourism for Development
			Intersection of These Three Domains
		Development Measurement Frameworks in Tourism
		Rethinking the Role and Impact of ICTs in Tourism for Development
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	74 Digital Divide in E-Tourism
		Contents
		Introduction
		Digital Divide
		Digital Divide in Tourism
			Current State of Digital Divide in Tourism
			Models of Digital Divide in Tourism
			Strategies to Mitigate the Digital Divide
			Research Topics on Digital Divide in Tourism
		Future Trends in Digital Divide
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	75 Social Media and Crisis Communication in Tourism and Hospitality
		Contents
		Introduction
		Crisis Defined
		Crisis Communication
			Crisis Communication Origins and History
			Social Media in Crisis Communication
		Crisis Communication in Hospitality and Tourism
			Crisis Communication Throughout Crisis Phases
			Internal and External Crisis Communication
		Social Media and Crisis Communication in Hospitality and Tourism
			Social Media Pre-Crisis
				Adoption of Social Media for Crisis Communication
				Management of Social Media for Crisis Monitoring and Mitigation
				Tourists Use of Social Media Pre-Crisis
			Social Media During Crisis
				Industry's Use of Social Media During a Crisis
				Peer-to-Peer Communication and Community Resilience
				Crowdsourcing and Citizen Journalism
				Misinformation, Trust, and Rumor Reduction
				Use and Behaviors of Social Media During a Crisis
			Social Media Post-Crisis
				Industry's Use of Social Media Post-Crisis
				Managing Risk Perceptions Post-Crisis
		The Future of Social Media Crisis Communication in Tourism
		References
	76 Biometrics in Tourism: Issues and Challenges
		Contents
		Introduction
			Biometrics
		Types of Biometrics Technology
			Iris
			Face
			Fingerprint
		Issues and Challenges of Biometrics Technology
			Physical Privacy
			Information Privacy
			Contamination Fears
		Conclusion
		References
	77 Simulations in e-Tourism Learning and Management
		Contents
		Introduction: Simulations in Tourism and Hospitality
		Background
		Case Study: Destination Administration and Planning System (DAPS) Simulation Game
			Version 1
			Power, Influence, and ``Flocking'' Behavior
			Version 2
			The Game Destination
			Architecture and Processing
			The Community and Its Social Network
			Validation
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
Part VIII e-Tourism Future
	78 Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
		Contents
		Introduction
		Research on Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
		Technical Foundations of Robotics
		Current Application of Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
			Robots in Hotels
			Robots in Restaurants
			Robots in Events
			Robots in Attractions
			Robots in Travel
		Supply-Side Perspective of Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
			The Economics of Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
			Cost-Benefit Analysis of Adoption of Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
			Managing Tourism/Hospitality Employees' Resistance to Service Robots
			Design of Robot-Friendly Facilities
		Demand-Side Perspective of Robotics in Tourism and Hospitality
			Attitudes Towards Robots
			Human-Robot Interaction
			Willingness to Pay for Robot-Delivered Services
		The Future of Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
			Future Opportunities for Robotization of Tourism and Hospitality Services
			Future Research Opportunities on Robots in Tourism and Hospitality
		Conclusions
		Cross-References
		References
	79 Virtual Reality and the End of Tourism? A Substitution Acceptance Model
		Contents
		Introduction
		Present and Future VR Technology
		VR Tourism: Why and Why Not
		VR as a Tourism Substitute?
		A Substitution Acceptance Model of VR Tourism
			Characteristics of the User
			Characteristics of the VR Experience
			Quality of the VR Experience
		Implications of VR Tourism
		Conclusion
		Cross-References
		References
	80 A Futuristic Look at Tourism in the Era of the InternetEcosystem
		Contents
		Introduction
		Era of the Internet Ecosystem
		Drivers of Change for Tourism
		Tourism and Socioeconomic Dynamics
		Tourism and Climate Change
			Tourism and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions
			Tourism and Climate Change Refugees
			Built Attractions and IT
			IT and the Destination Experience
			Climate Change, Tourism, and the Internet Ecosystem
		Tourism and Demographic Dynamics
		ITT2.0: The Growth of Virtual Reality Tourism
		Robot Doll Tourism
		Closing Remarks
		Cross-References
		Notes
		References
	81 Impact of Artificial Intelligence in Travel, Tourismand Hospitality
		Contents
		Introduction
		Defining Artificial Intelligence
		IT Foundations for AI
			Big Data
			AI Fields of Interest for Travel and Tourism
				Ambient Intelligence
				Natural Language Processing and Facial Recognition
				Machine Learning, Deep Learning, and Neural Networks
		AI Systems and Their Use in Travel and Tourism
			AI Systems
				Personalization and Recommender Systems
				Conversational Systems: Chatbots and Voice Assistants
				Forecasting
				Language Translation Applications
			Devices and Integrated Systems
				Robots
				Smart Travel Assistants
			Smart Tourism and Smart Destinations
		Impacts of AI on Hospitality
		AI-Related Challenges in Travel and Tourism
			Issues Related to Tourists' Adoption and Use of AI
			The Substitution of Humans
			Ethics and Biases in AI
			Future Research
		Expected Future Developments
		Cross-References
		References
Index