Handbook of Clinical Child Psychology: Integrating Theory and Research into Practice

Preface
Contents
About the Editor
Part I: Foundations of Clinical Child Psychology
	1: History of Clinical Child Psychology
		History
			Introduction of Clinical Psychology
		Professional Development
		Theories
		Treatment
			Advancements in Treatment of Child and Adolescent Anxiety
			Advancements in the Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorder
		Conclusion
		References
	2: Developmental Psychopathology
		Age of Onset
		Developmental Course
		Developmental Influences on Manifestation of Problems
		Conclusions and Future Directions
		References
	3: Evidence-Based Practice in Clinical Child Psychology
		Historical Evolution and Controversies
		Stool Leg 1: Best Available Research
		Stool Leg 2: Clinical Expertise
		Stool Leg 3: Patient Culture, Preferences, and Values
		Frameworks and Methods for Delivering EBP and Selecting EBTs
		Future Directions
		Conclusion
		References
	4: The WHO International Classification of Diseases 11th Revision (ICD-11)
		Introduction
		ICD-11: Origins, Development, and Future Directions
			Classifying Mortality: The Beginnings of the ICD
				From Death to Disease
				ICD Revisions Under the Guidance of the WHO
				Mental Health Classification in the ICD
			ICD-11: Vision, Development, and Process
			Mental Health Classification: The Approach of ICD-11
			ICD-11 Field Trials: Relevance for Children and Adolescents
			Future Directions
		ICD-11: Overall Structure
			ICD-11: Overall Application
		Clinical Descriptions and Diagnostic Guidelines for ICD-11 Mental, Behavioural, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
		Overview of Changes Related to Mental, Behavioural, and Neurodevelopmental Disorders in the ICD-11
			Discussions and Debates Related to Changes in the ICD-11
				Neurodevelopmental Disorders
				Disorders of Addictive Behaviours
		Highlighting New Additions to Mental Health in ICD-11
			Cultural Considerations
		Clinical Utility of ICD-11
		Criticisms and Commentary on ICD-11
			Similarities and Differences with DSM-5
			Gaming Disorder
		Conclusion
		References
	5: DSM-5 and Clinical Child Psychology
		Introduction
		Nosology
			A Case for Classification
			Challenges of Classification
		History
			Pre-DSM Nosology
			DSM-I and DSM-II
			DSM-III and DSM-IV: A Paradigm Shift
		Developing the DSM-5
			DSM-5 Task Force
			DSM-5 Field Trials
		Major Developments
			Dimensional Approach
			Developmental and Lifespan Considerations
			Elimination of the Multiaxial System
		Implications for Child and Adolescent Psychopathology
			Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
			Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
			Autism Spectrum Disorder
			Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
		Criticisms
			Diagnostic Inflation
			Limited Data on Neurobiological Substrates
		Using the DSM
			Structure of the DSM-V
			DSM in Assessment
			DSM in Treatment
		Conclusion
		References
	6: NIMH’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) and Clinical Child Psychology
		Introduction and Rationale
			Background
			RDoC Assumptions and Goals
		Structure of the RDoC Framework
			Defining Construct and Dimension
			The RDoC Matrix
			RDoC Domains and Constructs
			RDoC Approach to Conduct Disorder – An Illustrative Example
			RDoC Approach to Two Conduct Disorder Vignettes
		Research Domain Criteria – Development
			Developing Neural Circuits
			RDoC and Neurodevelopment
			Developmental Trajectories
			Sensitive Periods in Development
			Dynamic Interactions in Development
			RDoC Approach to Developmental Research
		Research Domain Criteria – Environment
			Environmental Factors in the RDoC Framework
			Environmental Influence on Psychopathology
		Research Domain Criteria – Current Status and Future Directions
			RDoC in Clinical Research – Subject Selection
			RDoC in Clinical Research – Variable Selection
			RDoC in Clinical Research – Incremental Findings over DSM
			RDoC in Clinical Assessment
			RDoC in Developing Treatments
			RDoC in Education and Training
			Evolution of RDoC
		References
	7: Child and Youth Psychopathology: Ethics and Legal Considerations
		Ethics
			Informed Consent
			Child Abuse Reporting
			Harm to Self
			Harm to Others
			Balancing Child Privacy with Parental Rights
			Treatment Without Parental Consent
		Law and Science
		Conclusions
		References
	8: Parental Stress in Raising a Child with Mental Health and Behavior Problems
		What Is Parental Stress?
		Parental Stress Assessment
		Parental Stress and Children with Special Needs
		Parental Stress, Family Support, and Quality of Life
		Socioeconomic Status and Parental Stress
		Gender Difference and Parental Stress
		Intervention and Policy Recommendation
		Conclusion
		References
	9: Parental Substance Use
		Introduction
		Family Environment
		Parenting
		Children Affected by Parental Substance Use
			Prenatal Exposure to Substances
			Mental Health Problems
			Health Behavior
		Protective Factors and Resiliency
		Interventions and Support
			Interventions for Parents
			Interventions for Children
		Conclusion
		References
	10: Parental Separation and Divorce: Risk and Protective Factors and Their Implications for Children’s Adjustment
		Prevalence of Parental Separation/Divorce
		Consequences of Parental Separation/Divorce in Childhood, Adolescence, and Adulthood
		Public Health Burden Associated with Parental Separation/Divorce
		Putting the Consequences of Parental Separation/Divorce in Perspective
		Theoretical Perspectives of the Effects of Parental Separation/Divorce on Children
		Understanding Variability in Children’s Post-divorce Outcomes
		Nonmodifiable Risk and Protective Factors
		Demographic Factors – Child Sex, Age, Race/Ethnicity
		Modifiable Risk and Protective Factors
		Conclusion and Implications for Clinical Practice
		References
	11: Irritability
		Brief History of Current Conceptualizations of Pediatric Irritability
		Irritability in Normative Development
		Etiology and Neurobiology
		Diagnostic Considerations
			Disorders Characterized by Irritability
			Disorders Associated with Irritability
			Summary
		Assessment
			Clinical Interviews
			Rating Scales
			Behavioral Observations
			Summary
		Treatment
			Psychotherapy
			Pharmacology
			Summary
		Conclusions
		References
	12: A Crisis in the Opportunity to Learn: Addressing the Causes and Consequences of Missing School
		Absenteeism and Accountability
			Definitions of Chronic Absenteeism and Truancy
			History of Attendance and Accountability
			Current Context of Attendance and Accountability
				School Funding Formulas
				Absenteeism and ESSA
		Importance of Regular School Attendance
			Who Is Missing the Most School?
			Consequences of Missing School
				Direct Effects to Academic Performance
				Non-testing Outcomes
			The Role of the School: Considering Push and Pull Factors Driving Student Absenteeism
				Elementary Absenteeism
				Secondary Absenteeism
		Strategies to Reduce Absenteeism
			School Level
			Classroom Level
			Family Level
		Conclusion
		References
Part II: Cognition and Clinical Child Psychopathology
	13: Executive Function in Children and Adolescents: A Concept in Need of Clarity
		Conceptualization of Executive Function During Childhood
			Brief History
			Theoretical Considerations
		Models of Executive Function
		Development of Executive Function
			Infancy
			Toddlerhood
			The Preschool Years
			Middle Childhood
			Late Childhood and Adolescence
		Neural Basis of Executive Function
		Genetic and Environmental Factors Associated with the Development of Executive Function
			Genetics
			Environment
				Socioeconomic Status
				Maternal Depression and Anxiety
				Parent–Child Interactions
				Nutrition
				Neurotoxicant
		Executive Function and Neurodevelopmental, Behavioural, and Mental Health Disorders in Children
		Assessments of Executive Function
			Ratings of EF
			Performance-Based Tasks of Executive Function
			Neuroimaging and Physiological Indicators of Executive Function
			Problems in the Assessment of Executive Function
		Interventions for Executive Function
		Directions for Future Research
		References
	14: Theory of Mind
		Introduction
		Theory of Mind: Construct and Assessment
			Theory of Mind: The False Belief Task
			Theory of Mind: The 5-Step Scale
			Advanced Theory of Mind
			Clinical Implications
		Theory of Mind: Individual Differences and Social Behavior
			Executive Function in Theory of Mind Development
			Language and Theory of Mind Development
			Theory of Mind and Social Behavior
		Intervention
			Types of Interventions
				Targeted ToM Interventions
				Group Social Skills-Theory of Mind Interventions
				Computer-Based Theory of Mind Interventions
				Language-Theory of Mind Interventions
			Generalizability and Other Difficulties
		Future Directions
			Measurement and Construct
			Interventions and Methods
		Conclusions
		References
	15: Theories of Intelligence
		Introduction
		Early Theories of Human Intelligence
		Twentieth-Century Perspectives
		Recent Developments in Theories of Intelligence
		Practical Applications and Implications
		Conclusion
		References
Part III: Testing Methods in Clinical Child Psychology
	16: Intelligence Tests
		Introduction
		Overview of Popular IQ Tests
			First Practical IQ Test and the Stanford-Binet
			Wechsler Tests
			Woodcock-Johnson Tests
			Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children
			Differential Ability Scales
			Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales
			Brief or Abbreviated IQ Tests
			Nonverbal IQ Tests
			Technological Advances
			Conclusion
		Current Uses of IQ Tests with Children
			Qualified Test Users
			Diagnostic Use
				Educational Purposes
				Healthcare Purposes
				Other Purposes
		IQ and Other Related Tests
		Conclusion
		References
	17: Measures of Adaptive Behavior
		History of Adaptive Behavior
		Adaptive Behavior: Assessment
			Adaptive Behavior Assessment System or ABAS
			The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales or VABS
			Scales of Independent Behavior – Revised
			Diagnostic Adaptive Behavior Scale
		Other Measurements for Assessing Adaptive Functioning as Part of Scales of Evaluation of Psychomotor Development
			Adaptive Behavior in the Denver Developmental Screening Test and the Denver II
			Adaptive Behavior in Bayley-III and the Bayley-4
		When Standardized Scales Cannot Be Used
		Adaptive Behavior in Some Neurodevelopmental Disorders
			Adaptive Functioning in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
				Adaptive Profile of Individuals with ASD
				Factors That Could Affect Adaptive Behavior in ASD
			Adaptive Functioning in Individuals with Williams-Beuren Syndrome
				Adaptive Profile in Individuals with WBS
				Factors That Could Affect Adaptive Behavior in WBS
			Adaptive Functioning in Individuals with Fragile X Syndrome
				Adaptive Profile in Individuals with FXS
				Factors That Could Affect Adaptive Behavior in FXS
		Conclusion
		References
Part IV: Treatment Methods in Clinical Child Psychopathology
	18: Applied Behavior Analysis: Conceptual Foundations, Defining Characteristics, and Behavior-Change Elements
		Origins and Conceptual Basis of Applied Behavior Analysis
		Defining Characteristics of a Behavior-Analytic Approach
			Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis
				Applied
				Behavioral
				Analytic
				Conceptually Systematic
				Technological
				Effective
				Generalizable
			Characteristics of Applied Behavior Analysis
				Understanding the Operant Contingency
				Selection of a Target Response
				Measurement
				Establishing, Selecting, and Delivering Consequences
				Performance Evaluation
		Fundamental Behavior-Change Elements
			Response Acquisition
				Teaching Strategies
			Behavior Reduction
				Development of a Function-Based Intervention
				Antecedent-Based Interventions
				Consequent-Based Interventions
			Maintenance and Generalization
		Concluding Remarks
		References
	19: Functional Assessment
		Guiding Evidence-Based Practice of Functional Assessment
			Have Universal Strategies Failed?
			Is the Topography of Problem Behavior Dangerous?
			Is the Occurrence of Problem Behavior Socially Impactful?
			Will the Functional Assessment Result in a Unique and More Effective Intervention?
			Is the Functional Assessment Feasible Given the Current Staff and Resources?
		Functional Assessment Models
			Indirect Assessment
			Descriptive Assessment
			Functional Analysis
				Functional Analysis Formats
		Special Considerations
			Application of Functional Assessment Models
			Automatic Reinforcement
		Conclusions
		References
	20: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) with Children and Adolescents
		Theoretical Framework
		Therapeutic Relationship and Therapist’s Attitude
		General CBT Components
			Assessment and Systematic Evaluation of Outcome
			Case Conceptualization
			CBT Structure
			Psychoeducation
			Setting Goals
			Monitoring Behaviors, Emotions, and Cognitions
		Behavioral Techniques
			Reinforcement of Desired Behavior
			Behavioral Experiments and Exposures
			Relaxation Training
			Behavioral Activation
		Cognitive Techniques
			Cognitive Restructuring
			Problem-Solving
		Empirical Support for CBT in Internalizing and Externalizing Disorders in Children and Adolescents
			Effectiveness of CBT in Routine Care
		The Need for Developmental Sensitive Adaptations of CBT
			Strategies to Make CBT Developmental Sensitive
		Summing Up
		References
	21: Classical Conditioning
		Introduction
		Aversive Conditioning: Learning to Fear
		The Developmental Trajectory of Fear Learning
		Fear Conditioning – A Promising Translational Model for Anxiety, Fear, and Trauma-Related Disorders?
		The Two-Factor Theory: Learning About Escape and Avoidance
		Biological Dispositions in Classical Conditioning
		The Flexibility of Aversive Conditioning
		Exaggerated Fear: Elevated Excitatory and/or Deficient Inhibitory Responding?
		Fear Conditioning in the Absence of Direct Aversive Experiences
		Nature Versus Nurture in Pathological Fear
		Fear Extinction: A Model for the Treatment of Pathological Fear and Anxiety
		Exposure Therapy and Its Underlying Mechanisms
		Strategies to Enhance Inhibitory Learning During Exposure Therapy
		Facilitating the Generalization of Exposure Treatment Effects
		Preventing the Return of Fear
		Exposure Therapy with Children and Adolescents
		Exposure Therapy Beyond the Treatment of Fear and Anxiety
		Appetitive Conditioning as a Fundamental Learning Process in Children and Adolescents
		Appetitive Conditioning: Risk-Taking, Sensation-Seeking, and Substance Use
		Appetitive Conditioning and Depression
		Beyond Exposure – Other Interventions Based on Classical Conditioning
		Classical Versus Operant Conditioning
		Conclusions
		References
	Glossary
	22: Mindfulness
		What Is Mindfulness?
			Assessment Scales for Child Mindfulness
		Mindfulness-Based Programs and Practices for Children
			Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction and Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy for Children
			.b and Paws b
			MindUP
			Learning to Breathe
			Mindful School
			MYmind
			Soles of the Feet
		Age and Sex Effects on the Outcomes of Child Mindfulness Programs
			Can Mindfulness Programs Benefit Preschool Children?
			Can Children and Adolescents Benefit Equally from Mindfulness Programs?
			Sex Effects on the Outcomes of School-Based Mindfulness Programs
		Application of Mindfulness Programs in Clinical Populations
			Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
			Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Intellectual Disability (ID)
			Anxiety and Depression
			Aggression and Disruptive Behaviors
			Other Chronic Conditions
		Impact of Mindfulness Training for Parents and Teachers on Children
			Parents
			Teachers
		Conclusions
		References
	23: Family Therapy
		Introduction
		Delinquency and Disruptive Behavior Disorders
		Functional Family Therapy
		Multisystemic Therapy
		Substance Use Disorders
		Brief Strategic Family Therapy
		Multidimensional Family Therapy
		Attachment-Based Family Therapy for Depression
		Cognitive Behavioral Family Therapy for Anxiety
		Family-Based Therapy for Eating Disorders
		Psychoeducational Family Therapy for Psychosis
		Closing Comments
		References
	24: Parent Training
		Behavioral Parent Training for Child Behavior Problems
			Behavioral Parent Training for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
			Behavioral Parent Training for Disruptive Behavior Disorders
			Behavioral Parent Training for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
		Behavior Parent Training with Special Populations
			Behavioral Parent Training with Foster Families
			BPT with Incarcerated Parents
		Cultural Considerations for BPT
		Summary
		References
	25: Psychotropic Medication
		The Evolution of Psychotropic Medication
			Variability of Psychotropic Prescribing
		Types of Psychotropic Medications
			Stimulants
			Antidepressants
			Antipsychotics
		Safety, Adverse Side Effects, and Adherence
			Adverse Effects of SSRIs and Other Antidepressants
			Adverse Effects of Stimulants
			Adverse Effects of Antipsychotics
			Medication Adherence
		Benefits and Shortcomings of Psychotropic Treatment
		Prescribing Parameters
			Polypharmacy
			Considerations for Specific Populations
		Psychotropic Medication in Conjunction with Psychological Treatment
		References
	26: Prevention Strategies: Prevention and Promotion in Child Mental Health
		A Framework for Conceptualizing Mental Health Prevention and Promotion
			Who
			What
			When
			Where
			Why
			How
		Ecological Systems View of Prevention in Child Mental Health
			Family-Based Preventive Interventions for Children
			School-Based Preventive Interventions for Children
			Preventive Interventions for Children in Primary Healthcare Settings
			Community-Based Preventive Interventions for Children
			Policy Implications
				Summary and Future Directions
				Future Directions
		Conclusion
		References
Part V: Assessment of Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Children
	27: Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders
		Screening Methods
		Neurodevelopmental History
		Diagnostic Assessment Instruments
		Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule, Second Edition (ADOS-2)
		Autism Diagnostic Interview—Revised
		Autism Spectrum Rating Scale
		Childhood Autism Rating Scale, Second Edition
		Social Communication Questionnaire
		Social Responsiveness Scale, Second Edition
		Comprehensive Diagnostic Evaluations
		Conclusions
		References
	28: Assessment of Intellectual Disabilities (ID) and Comorbid Disorders in Children
		Introduction
		Diagnostic Considerations
		Comorbidity
		Intellectual Assessments
		Adaptive Behavior
		Behavioral, Emotional, and Social Assessments
		Evolution in Assessment Practices
		Transition Planning Practices
		Conclusions
		References
	29: ADHD
		Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
			Etiology
			Diagnostic Criteria
			Developmental Progression
				Early Life
				Elementary School Years
				Adolescence and Adulthood
			Comorbidities
		Assessment of ADHD
			Interviews
				Initial Interview
			Screening Measures
			Assessment Measures
				Formal Assessment Measures
			Broad-Band Rating Scales
			Targeted Rating Scales
			Informal Assessment Measures
				Behavioral Observations
				School File Review
		Additional Considerations in ADHD Assessment
			Conditions That Present Similarly to ADHD
			Gender
			Cultural and Family Norms
			Adolescent Assessment
		Conclusion
		References
	30: Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder
		The History of EIBI
			Foundations in Behavioral Science
			Comprehensive ABA-Based Intervention: The Young Autism Project
			Early Replications
			Critiques and Clarifications: Evolution of Practice Across the Model
		Associated Methodologies and Treatment Components of EIBI
			Defining Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis
			A Further Dimension: Social Validity
			Toward Procedural Descriptions of Program Components
				Commonly Used Evidence-Based Practices in EIBI
		The Key Characteristics of an Effective EIBI Program
			Early Intervention
			Intensive Intervention
			Behavioral Approach
			Other Factors for Success
		Populations Represented in the Literature
		Contemporary Outcomes Associated with EIBI
			EIBI Outcomes Summary by Decade
			Critique of Research Design and Call for Analysis of Predictive Variables
				Symptom Severity
				IQ Scores
				Comorbidities
				Research Design
			Statistical Analysis and Meta-analysis: Dosage and Duration
		Conclusion
		References
Part VI: Treatment of Neurodevelopmental Disorders in Children
	31: Treatment of Autism Spectrum Disorders
		Treatment Aims
		General Trends in Treatment Delivery
		Early Childhood Treatment
			ABA-Based Interventions
			Developmental Social Pragmatic Interventions
			Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions
			Group Interventions for Preschool Children
		Treatments for School-Age Children
			Treatment Settings
			Key Skills
			Evidence-Based Treatments
				Applied Behavioral Analysis Strategies
				School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports
				Social Skills Training (SST)
				Cognitive Behavioral/Instructional Strategies (CBIS)
		Treatments in Adolescence
			Key Skills
			Evidence-Based Treatments
				Applied Behavioral Analysis and Related Strategies
				Social Cognitive Interventions
				Emerging Interventions
			Emerging Adulthood
		Treatments in Adulthood
			Social, Psychosocial, and Emerging Interventions
			Supports for Young Adults in Post-secondary Education
			Vocational Training and Supported Employment
			Importance of Systems in Supporting Adults
		Conclusion
		References
Part VII: Assessment and Treatment of Pediatric Disorders
	32: Toilet Training
		Introduction
		Primary Physiological Data of Lower Urinary Tract (LUT) and Lower Bowel Tract (LBT) (Bourdelat et al., 1992; Abrams et al., 2003; Wyndaele, 1998)
		The Normal Development of the Voiding Process in Children (Sillén, 2001; Gladh et al., 2000)
		The Normal Development of the Defecation (den Hertog et al., 2012; Çamurdan et al., 2014; Gulati et al., 2018; Van Aggelpoel et al., 2020)
		Bladder and Bowel Interactions (Largo et al., 1978; Malykhina et al., 2012; De Wachter & Wyndaele, 2003a; Panayi et al., 2011; Burgers et al., 2010; Loening-Baucke, 1997; De Wachter et al., 2007; Ambartsumyan et al., 2016)
		When to Start TT?
		How Is the Outcome When TT Starts During the First Year of Life? (Rugolotto et al., 2008)
		Postponement of the TT Age (Bakker & Wyndaele, 2000; Barone et al., 2009; Blum et al., 2004; Jansson et al., 2005; Berk & Friman, 1990; Horn et al., 2006; Horstmanshoff et al., 2003; Rogers, 2002) [19–26]
		Consequences of Postponement [19, 21, 23, 27–51] (Bakker & Wyndaele, 2000; Blum et al., 2004; Berk & Friman, 1990; Schum et al., 2001; AAP, 1999; Bakker et al., 2001; Hadler & Mc Farland, 1986; Hellstrom, 2000; Joinson et al., 2009;
		The Concept of Toilet Readiness and the Use of Developmental Signs (DS) [28, 39, 52–62] (AAP, 1999; Pickering et al., 1986; Spock, 1946; Schuster et al., 2000; Wyndaele et al., 2020; Kaerts et al., 2012a; Kaerts, 2012; Carruth & Skinner,
		Crucial: Is the Child Ready? [19–21, 26, 28, 33–34, 46, 50, 54, 56, 62–69] (Bakker & Wyndaele, 2000; Barone et al., 2009; Blum et al., 2004; Rogers, 2002; AAP, 1999; Joinson et al., 2009; Mota & Barros, 2008b; Largo & Stutzle, 1977; Wy
			Description of Published TT-Related DS in Young Healthy Children
		Can All DS Easily Been Detected? (Kaerts, 2012; Choby & George, 2008) [56, 64]
		Can DS Help Define Readiness for TT and Probability of Success, Forming RS? [54] (Wyndaele et al., 2020)
		Does the Start of TT Have an Influence on the RS?
		TT Guidelines: Parents, Daycare and Nursery Schools
		Parents (Bakker & Wyndaele, 2000; Barone et al., 2009; Berk & Friman, 1990; Horn et al., 2006; Horstmanshoff et al., 2003; AAP, 1999; Bakker et al., 2001, 2002; Mota & Barros, 2008b; Vermandel et al., 2008a; Brazelton et al., 1999
		Information as a Crucial Help for TT by Parents [65–78] (Doleys & Dolce, 1982; Schum et al., 2001, 2002; Largo et al., 1996, 1999; Taubman, 1997b; Van Nunen et al., 2015; Wald et al., 2009; Jansson et al., 2008; MOnsen, 2001; Klack
		Daycare [49, 77, 79–83] (Kinservik & Friedhoff, 2000; Kaerts et al., 2014; Barcelona European Council, 2002; Blackburn, 2006; Plantenga & Siegel, 2004; Wu, 2010; Vermandel et al., 2009)
		Nursery Schools [78] (Van Aggelpoel et al., 2018)
		Factors Influencing TT [24, 27, 34, 65–68, 71, 73, 84–91] (Horn et al., 2006; Schum et al., 2001, 2002; Mota & Barros, 2008a; Doleys & Dolce, 1982; Largo et al., 1996, 1999; Wald et al., 2009; Monsen, 2001; Vermandel, 2017; Bloom e
		How Long Does It Take to TT [19, 21, 30, 33, 83, 92–94] (Bakker & Wyndaele, 2000; Blum et al., 2004, 2006; Joinson et al., 2009; Vermandel et al., 2009; Feehan et al., 1990; Djurhuus et al., 1997; Foxx & Azrin, 1973)
		How to Perform TT [19, 51–52, 94] (Bakker & Wyndaele, 2000; Brazelton, 1962; Spock, 1946; Foxx & Azrin, 1973)
			Basic Requirements
			Positive Things To Do During TT
			Negative Aspects of TT Methods
		Long-Term Effects of TT Methods [26, 28, 33, 36–37, 49–50, 64–65, 73–75] (Rogers, 2002; AAP, 1999; Joinson et al., 2009; Vermandel et al., 2008a; Bakker et al., 2002; Kinservik & Friedhoff, 2000; Stadtler et al., 1999; Monsen, 2001; Sc
		Enuresis nocturna-Bedwetting [95–111] (Butler & Holland, 2000; Doleys, 1977; Hjalmas, 1988; De Wachter & Wyndaele, 2003b; Sillén, 2001; Hamano et al., 2000; Watanabe & Kawauchi, 1995; Khan et al., 1993; Medel et al., 1998; Oredsson &
		The Importance of an Equal Terminology
		The TT Sequence
		Special Techniques of TT
			Group Training in Daycare Centres [112] (Van Aggelpoel et al., 2021)
		Daytime Wetting Alarm [113–116] (Levato et al., 2016; Vermandel et al., 2008b; Friman & Vollmer, 1995; Van Laecke et al., 2006)
		Bowel
		Gastrocolic Reflex [9, 117–128] (Van Aggelpoel et al., 2020; Hertz & Newton, 1913; Di Lorenzo et al., 1995; Rodriguez et al., 2017; Dobson & Rogers, 2009; Loening-Baucke, 1994, 1996; Har & Croffie, 2010; Rajindrajith et al., 2016; Bo
		What Can Be the Meaning of Children Hiding While Defecating Before They Have Completed TT [129] (Taubman et al., 2003)
		Conclusion
		References
	33: Somatic Syndromes: Assessment and Treatment for Children and Adolescents
		Introduction: Somatic Syndromes in Youth
			Prevalence of Somatic Syndromes in Youth
			Prevalence and Characteristics of Somatic Syndromes in Youth
			Biopsychosocial Conceptual Framework for Somatic Syndromes in Youth
		Screening and Assessing Youth with Somatic Syndromes
			Psychological Clinical Assessment: Case Formulation
		Treatment Interventions for Somatic Syndromes in Children and Adolescents
			Evaluation of Psychotherapy Interventions for Somatic Syndromes in Youth
			Clinical and Research Implications
		Concluding Comments
		References
	34: Pediatric Cancer
		Overview of Pediatric Cancer
			Psychosocial Care for Pediatric Cancer Patients and Their Families
		Diagnosis and Treatment
			Psychological Functioning and Adjustment of Patients
			Screening and Prevention
			Management of Somatic Symptoms
			Management of Emotional and Behavioral Symptoms
			Risk and Resilience Factors
		End of Treatment and Survivorship
			Cognitive and Academic Functioning
			Psychological Functioning and Adjustment of Survivors
		Disease Recurrence and End-of-Life Care
			Advance Care Planning
			End of Life
			Legacy-Making and Bereavement
		Across the Cancer Trajectory
			Communication and Decision-Making
			Family Coping and Psychosocial Interventions for Family Members
			Adherence
			Promotion of Health Behaviors
		Summary
		Resources
		References
	35: Health-Related Fitness During Early Years, Childhood, and Adolescence
		Physical Fitness Definition and Its Components
		Growth, Maturation, and Development in Physical Fitness
		Physical Fitness Assessment
			Laboratory-Based Tests
				Cardiorespiratory Endurance
				Muscular Fitness
				Body Composition
			Field-Based Tests
				Cardiorespiratory Endurance
				Muscular Fitness
				Balance, Coordination, Speed-Agility, and Flexibility
				Body Composition
				Normative-Referenced Standards
			Questionnaires
		Tracking Health-Related Fitness from Childhood and Adolescence to Adulthood
		Health-Related Fitness Secular Trends
		Physical Fitness and Health Benefits
			Anthropometric and Body Composition
			Cardiometabolic Risk Factors
			Bone Health
			Mental Health, Cognitive, and Academic Outcomes
		Physical Fitness Components and Training
		References
Part VIII: Assessment and Treatment of Challenging Behaviors in Children
	36: Defining Aggression: Form and Function
		Forms of Aggression
		Functions of Aggression
		Function by Form
		Assessment
		Intervention Implications
		Future Directions
		Summary
		References
	37: Self-Injurious Behavior
		SIB and Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
		Emergence and Classification of SIB
		Behavioral Treatments for SIB
			Antecedent Interventions
			Consequence Interventions
				Reinforcement Procedures
				Extinction
				Response Interruption Procedures
			Safety Management Techniques
			Treatment Generalization
			Social Validity
		Ethical Principles in the Assessment and Treatment of SIB
			Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
			Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
			Principle C: Integrity
			Principle D: Justice
			Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
		Special Section: Automatic Self-Injurious Behavior
		References
	38: Noncompliance
		Noncompliance – Chapter 61
		Assessment of Noncompliance
			Informant (Indirect) Methods
			Descriptive (Direct) Methods
			Experimental Analysis Method
		Interventions to Increase Compliance
		Antecedent-Based Interventions
		Consequence-Based Interventions
		Conclusions
		References
	39: Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling Disorder)
		Introduction
		Concept
		Epidemiology
		Etiopathogenesis
		Signs and Symptoms
		Impact and Evaluation Scales
		Differential Assessment and Diagnoses
		Treatment
		Conclusion
		References
	40: Oppositional Defiant Disorder
		Introduction
		Definitions and Concepts
		Distinguishing ODD from Other Disruptive Behavior Disorders
			Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
			Conduct Disorder
			Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
		Etiology and Risk Factors of ODD
			Heritability
			Temperament
			Attachment Security
			Harsh Parenting
			Additional Environmental Risk Factors
		Comorbidity
			Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
			Conduct Disorder
			Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder
			Anxiety Disorders
			Depression
		Prevalence
		Developmental Trajectories
		Screening Tools and Assessments for ODD
			Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children
			Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule
			Child Behavior Checklist
			Disruptive Behavior Disorders Rating Scale
			Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham Teacher and Parent Rating Scale
			The Vanderbilt ADHD Diagnostic Parent and Teacher Rating Scales
		Evidence-Based Treatments
			Non-pharmacological or Behavioral Interventions
		Additional Factors for Non-pharmacological Therapies
		References
Part IX: Assessment and Treatment of Childhood Adjustment
	41: Play Skills
		The Importance of Play
			The Benefits of Play on Children’s Social, Emotional, and Mental Health Outcomes
		Definitions and Theories of Play
			Defining Play
			Theories of Play
				Arousal Modulation Theories of Play – Exploration Vs. Play
				Psychodynamic Theories of Play – Play and Emotional Development
				Cognitive Developmental Theories of Play – Play and Cognitive Development
				Sociocultural Theories of Play – Play as Socialisation and Communication
		Delays in the Development of Play
			Children with ADHD
			Children with ASD
			Children Exposed to Abuse
			Children with HIV/AIDS
			Children with CP and DCD
			Children with Developmental Delay and Other Disabilities
		Assessment of Play
			Supportiveness of the Play Environment
			Engaged and Preferred Play Activities
			Source of Motivation for Play
			Approach to Play (Playfulness)
			Skills Used in Play
		Treatment of Play
			Play-Based Interventions
			Systematic Reviews of Play-Based Interventions
			Directions for Future Research
		Conclusions and Recommendations
		References
	42: Evidence-Based Interventions to Teach Social Skills
		Evidence-Based Interventions to Teach Social Skills
		Remediation for Social Skills Deficits
			Ineffective Procedures and Fad Treatments
			Applied Behavior Analysis and Social Skills Intervention
		Social Skills Interventions
			Discrete Trial Teaching
			Video Based Instruction
			Script Fading
			The Teaching Interaction Procedure and Behavioral Skills Training
			The Cool Vs. Not Cool™ Procedure
			Parent-Mediated Intervention
			Peer-Mediated Intervention
			Social Skills Groups
		Conclusion
		References
	43: Language Development and Disorders: Guidelines for Assessment and Treatment
		Language Development and Disorders: Guidelines for Assessment and Treatment
		Assessment and Diagnosis of Language and Social Communication Disorder
			Language and Social Development Milestones
			Assessment and Diagnosis
				Assessment Components
				Norm-Referenced Assessments
				Observational Measures
				Cultural Considerations for Assessment
		Treatment
			Goals of Intervention
				Preschool
				Elementary School
				Middle and High School
				Post-Secondary School and Adulthood
			Evidence-Based Interventions for LD
				Shaping
				Discrete Trial Teaching
				Functional Communication Training
				Incidental Teaching
				Pivotal Response Training
				Parent-Mediated Intervention
				Augmentative and Alternative Communication
		Conclusion
		References
	44: Functional Communication Training
		Functional Behavior Assessments
		Indirect Assessments
		Direct Assessments
		Selecting a Replacement Behavior
		Teaching the New Replacement Behavior
		Systems of Prompts
		Additional Considerations to FCT
		Reinforcement Schedule Thinning
		Recommendations for Successful Implementation of Reinforcement Thinning Procedures
		Summary
		References
	45: Internet Gaming Disorder
		Internet Gaming Disorder
			Ongoing Controversies About the IGD Diagnosis
			Prevalence of IGD
			Risk Factors for IGD
			Consequences and Correlates of IGD
			Natural Course of IGD
			Common Comorbidities
			Assessment of IGD
			Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on IGD
			Effective Treatments for IGD
			Practical Suggestions for Treatment Providers
		Conclusions
		References
	46: COVID-19 and Children’s Mental Health
		Massive Economic Dislocation and Financial Stressors
		School Closures and Distance Education
		Childhood Trauma
			Mental Health
			Academic Functioning
			Socioemotional Functioning
		COVID-19 and Disparities
		Mental Health Supports
			Health Promotion
			Prevention
			Treatment
		Conclusion
		References
Part X: Assessment of Psychopathology in Children
	47: Assessment of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents
		Introduction
			Occurrence and Sociodemographic Variables
			Symptom Presentation
				Separation Anxiety Disorder
				Selective Mutism
				Specific Phobia
				Social Anxiety Disorder (Social Phobia)
				Panic Disorder
				Agoraphobia
				Generalized Anxiety Disorder
			Etiology
			Comorbidities
			Evidence-Based Assessments
				Unstructured Interviews
				Diagnostic Interviews
				The Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for DSM-IV Child and Parent Version
				Kiddie-Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School Aged Children-Present and Life Time Version (K-SADS-PL)
				National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMH DISC-IV)
			Questionnaires
				The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children, Second Edition (MASC-2)
				Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale Version 2 (RCMAS-2)
				The Fear Survey Schedule for Children-Revised
				The Child Behavior Checklist 6–18 (CBCL 6–18) and Related Questionnaires
				Screen for Childhood Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)
			Physiological Assessment of Anxiety
				Physiological Measures
			Observational Methods
				Behavior Avoidance Tasks (BATS)
				The Trier Social Stress Test-C
			Assessment of Anxiety Disorders in Special Populations
			Case Conceptualization
			Comorbidity and Differential Diagnosis
			Multiple Reporters
		Summary
		References
	48: Depression Assessment
		Depressive Disorders in Children and Adolescents
			Prevalence of Depression in Children and Adolescents
			Developmental Course of Depression
		Risk Factors for Youth Depression
			Familial and Genetic Risk
			Biological Factors
			Cognitive Risk Factors
			Temperament
			Negative Life Events and Stress Generation
			Interpersonal Factors
		General Considerations for Depression Assessment in Youth
			Developmental Considerations
			Diversity and Cultural Considerations
			Interviews Versus Rating Scales
			Informant Reports
			Categorical Versus Dimensional Perspectives
			Assessment of Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors
		Overview of Measures
			Diagnostic Interviews
				Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children (K-SADS)
				Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (CAPA) and Preschool Age Psychiatric Assessment (PAPA)
				Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview for Children and Adolescents (MINI-KID)
				Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC)
			Questionnaires and Rating Scales
				Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI)
				Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children (CES-DC)
				Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ)
				Reynolds Child and Adolescent Depression Scales (RADS/RCDS)
				Patient Health Questionnaire for Adolescents (PHQ-9)
				Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) and Youth Self Report (YSR)
				Behavior Assessment System for Children
			Assessment of Specific Depression Symptom Dimensions
				Anhedonia
				Irritability
		Summary and Conclusions
		References
Part XI: Treatment of Psychopathology in Children
	49: Treatment of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents
		Introduction
			Prevalence
				Cross-cultural Variations
				Treatment Seeking
			Associated Impairments
			Impairment Across the Lifespan
			Evidence-Based Treatment
				Exposure
				Relaxation Training
				Systematic Desensitization (SD)
				Modeling
				Contingency Management (Reinforced Practice)
			Cognitive Behavioral Treatments
				Coping Cat
				Cool Kids
			One-Session Treatment
			Computerized CBT
				Camp-Cope-A-Lot
				Cool Teens CD-ROM
			Parent Involvement
				Triple P Program
				Supportive Parenting for Anxious Childhood Emotions
			Modular Therapy and Transdiagnostic Treatments
				Modular Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
				Modular Approach to Therapy for Children with Anxiety, Depression, or Conduct Problems
				Unified Protocol for Treatment of Emotional Disorders in Children and Adolescents
			Treatment Adaptations in Special Populations
		Future Directions for Treatment in Anxious Youth
		References
	50: Nonsuicidal Self-Injury in Children and Adolescents
		Risk Factors for Engaging in Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
		Assessment of Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
			Screening for Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
			Risk Assessment
				Stage of Change
				Onset, Frequency, and Methods
				Aftercare
				Reasons
				Suicidal Ideation
		Treatment Options for Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
			Treatments Targeting Emotion Regulation
				Dialectical Behavior Therapy
				Emotion Regulation Group/Individual Therapy
				Mentalization-Based Treatment
			Treatments Targeting Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behaviors
				Manual-Assisted Cognitive Therapy
				Treatment for Self-Injurious Behaviors
				Cutting Down Program
			Digital Interventions for Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
			Considerations for Treatment Choice
			Summary of the Current Evidence-Base for Nonsuicidal Self-Injury
		Conclusion
		References
	51: Understanding Selective Mutism: A Comprehensive Guide to Assessment and Treatment
		Definition and Diagnostic Criteria for Selective Mutism
		History
		Descriptive Features of Selective Mutism
			Symptom Profile
				Speaking Behaviour
				Nonverbal Social Behaviour
				Internalising Symptoms
				Cognitions
				Attentional Focus
				Externalising Symptoms
				Comorbidity
				Trajectory of SM
		Risk Factors for Selective Mutism
			Internal Risk Factors
				Genetics
				Temperament
				Auditory Processing Skills
				Speech and Language Skills
				Social Performance Skills
			Environmental Factors
				Parent-Child Interaction
				Negative Life Events
		Assessment
			Other Measures to Consider for Child-, Parent- and/or Teacher-Report
		Treatment
			Evidence-Based Treatment
			Components of Treatment
			Duration of Treatment
		Conclusions
		References
Index