Handbook of Chitin and Chitosan: Volume 2: Composites and Nanocomposites from Chitin and Chitosan, Manufacturing and Characterisations

Handbook of Chitin and Chitosan
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
1 Polymer blends, composites and nanocomposites from chitin and chitosan; manufacturing, characterization and applications
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Processing of chitin and chitosan blends and composites
		1.2.1 Simple blending
		1.2.2 Lyophilization
		1.2.3 Spray drying and freeze spray drying
		1.2.4 Electrospinning
		1.2.5 Solution/solvent casting method
		1.2.6 Melt extrusion method
		1.2.7 Coprecipitation method
		1.2.8 Polymerization
		1.2.9 Phase inversion/separation process
	1.3 Important applications of chitin and chitosan
		1.3.1 Application of chitin and chitosan composites in food packing
		1.3.2 Application of chitin and chitosan composites in antimicrobial activities
		1.3.3 Application of chitin and chitosan composites in wound-healing activities
		1.3.4 Application of chitin and chitosan composites in water treatment process
			1.3.4.1 Heavy metals removal
			1.3.4.2 Dye removal
			1.3.4.3 Arsenic and mercury removal
			1.3.4.4 Phosphate, nitrate, and humic acid removal
			1.3.4.5 Fluoride removal
			1.3.4.6 Nanofiltration and antibacterial process
		1.3.5 Tissue engineering
		1.3.6 Application of chitin and chitosan composites in drug release
		1.3.7 Application of chitin and chitosan composites in bleeding control
	1.4 Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
2 Processing techniques of chitin-based gels, blends, and composites using ionic liquids
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Dissolution and gelation of chitin with ionic liquids
	2.3 Fabrication of chitin-based blend and composite materials using ionic liquids
	2.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
3 Processing techniques of chitosan-based interpenetrating polymer networks, gels, blends, composites and nanocomposites
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Chitosan
	3.3 Types of chitosan-based materials
		3.3.1 Chitosan-based interpenetrating polymer networks
			3.3.1.1 Interpenetrating polymer network based on chitosan and synthetic ionic matrices
			3.3.1.2 Interpenetrating polymer network based on chitosan and synthetic nonionic matrices
			3.3.1.3 Interpenetrating polymer network based on chitosan and natural matrices
		3.3.2 Chitosan-based gels
			3.3.2.1 Chitosan gels without external cross-linkers
			3.3.2.2 Ionic chitosan macrogels
			3.3.2.3 Ionic chitosan micro- and nanogels
			3.3.2.4 Thermosensitive gels
		3.3.3 Chitosan-based blends
			3.3.3.1 Synthetic polymer blended chitosan
			3.3.3.2 Natural polymer blended chitosan
		3.3.4 Chitosan-based composites and nanocomposites
			3.3.4.1 Synthetic filler/chitosan-based composites and nanocomposites
			3.3.4.2 Natural filler/chitosan-based composites and nanocomposites
	3.4 Processing techniques for chitosan-based interpenetrating polymer networks and gels
		3.4.1 Photopolymerization
		3.4.2 Cross-linking
		3.4.3 Physical interaction
	3.5 Processing techniques for chitosan-based blends
		3.5.1 Solution blending
		3.5.2 Melt blending
		3.5.3 Processing techniques of chitosan-based nanocomposites
			3.5.3.1 Mechanical stirring
			3.5.3.2 Solvent casting
			3.5.3.3 Freeze-drying
			3.5.3.4 Layer-by-layer
			3.5.3.5 Electrospinning
	3.6 Conclusions
	References
4 Microscopic studies on chitin and chitosan-based interpenetrating polymer networks, gels, blends, composites, and nanocom...
	4.1 Introduction
		4.1.1 Biopolymers
		4.1.2 Chitosan and chitin
	4.2 Chitin and chitosan-based gels, interpenetrating polymer network, blends, and composites
		4.2.1 Features of chitin and chitosan-based interpenetrating polymer network
		4.2.2 Properties of chitin and chitosan-based gels
		4.2.3 Characteristics of chitin and chitosan blends
		4.2.4 Study of chitin and chitosan composites
	4.3 Microscopic study
		4.3.1 General
		4.3.2 Scanning electron microscopy
		4.3.3 Transmission electron microscopy
		4.3.4 Optical microscopy
		4.3.5 Atomic force microscope
	4.4 Applications and future outlook
		4.4.1 Applications of chitin and chitosan-based products
		4.4.2 Future outlook
	4.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
5 Thermal degradation characteristics of chitin, chitosan, Al2O3/chitosan, and benonite/chitosan nanocomposites
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Preparation of chitin, chitosan, bentonite/chitosan, and Al2O3/chitosan nanocomposites
		5.2.1 Preparation of chitin and chitosan
		5.2.2 Preparation of the nanocomposite of 5%bentonite/chitosan and 10%Al2O3/chitosan
	5.3 Characterization of chitin, chitosan, Al2O3/chitosan, and bentonite/chitosan nanocomposites
		5.3.1 Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
		5.3.2 X-ray diffraction
			5.3.2.1 Scanning electron microscopy
		5.3.3 Differential scanning calorimetry
	5.4 Kinetics of thermal degradation of chitin, chitosan, Al2O3/chitin, and bentonite/chitosan nanocomposites
		5.4.1 Theoretical background
		5.4.2 Estimation of the degradation mechanism
		5.4.3 Thermogravimetric analyses
			5.4.3.1 Chitin and chitosan
			5.4.3.2 Nanocomposites of 5%bentonite/chitosan and 10%Al2O3/chitosan
		5.4.4 Thermal degradation kinetics
			5.4.4.1 Chitin and chitosan
			5.4.4.2 Nanocomposites of 5%bentonite/chitosan and 10%Al2O3/chitosan
		5.4.5 Degradation model
	5.5 Conclusions
	References
6 Barrier properties, antimicrobial and antifungal activities of chitin and chitosan-based IPNs, gels, blends, composites, ...
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 Insect sources
		6.1.2 Marine sources
	6.2 Barrier properties of chitin and chitosan
		6.2.1 Parameters affecting barrier properties
			6.2.1.1 Chemical structures
			6.2.1.2 Cohesive energy density
			6.2.1.3 Free volume
			6.2.1.4 Crystallinity
			6.2.1.5 Orientation
			6.2.1.6 Cross-linking
			6.2.1.7 Degree of dispersion of the platelets
		6.2.2 Permeability tests
		6.2.3 Development of barrier properties of chitin and chitosan nanocomposites
	6.3 Antimicrobial properties of the chitin and chitosan
		6.3.1 Parameters affecting antimicrobial properties
			6.3.1.1 Degree of deacetylation
			6.3.1.2 Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
			6.3.1.3 Surface charge density of bacteria membrane
			6.3.1.4 Abiotic factors
			6.3.1.5 Chitosan derivatives
			6.3.1.6 Molecular weights
			6.3.1.7 Sources
		6.3.2 Antimicrobial mechanisms
			6.3.2.1 Stimulation of secondary cellular effects that lead to destabilization of the wall
			6.3.2.2 Binding of low molecular weight of chitosan with DNA and RNA
			6.3.2.3 Metal chelation by amine groups in chitosan chain
	6.4 Antioxidant properties of chitin and chitosan
		6.4.1 Parameters affecting antioxidant properties
			6.4.1.1 Deacetylation period
			6.4.1.2 Molecular weight
		6.4.2 Mechanism of antioxidant properties
		6.4.3 Antioxidant assays
	6.5 Applications of chitin and chitosan
		6.5.1 Packaging applications
			6.5.1.1 Type of packaging
				6.5.1.1.1 Active packaging
				6.5.1.1.2 Smart packaging
			6.5.1.2 Packaging technologies
				6.5.1.2.1 Coating technology
				6.5.1.2.2 Electrospinning technology
		6.5.2 Dietary supplement applications
		6.5.3 Agricultural applications
		6.5.4 Cosmeceutical applications
	6.6 Conclusions
	References
7 Chitin and chitosan-based polyurethanes
	7.1 General considerations
	7.2 Chitin and chitosan
	7.3 Polyurethanes
		7.3.1 Basic reactions to obtain polyurethanes
		7.3.2 Isocyanates
		7.3.3 Polyols
	7.4 Development methods for chitin/chitosan-based polyurethanes
	7.5 Chitin and chitosan-based polyurethanes materials: characterization and applications
	7.6 Concluding remarks
	References
8 Chitin and chitosan-based blends, composites, and nanocomposites for packaging applications
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Biodegradable film production methods
		8.2.1 Combination of biodegradable materials with synthetic polymers
			8.2.1.1 Application of biopolymers as filling materials
			8.2.1.2 Application of biopolymers as one of the combined base materials
		8.2.2 Application of only biodegradable materials to produce polymers
		8.2.3 Methods of biopackaging production
	8.3 Functional properties of films
		8.3.1 Mechanical properties of films
			8.3.1.1 Effective factors on mechanical behavior of films
			8.3.1.2 Measuring mechanical properties of films
		8.3.2 Barrier properties of the films
			8.3.2.1 Permeability to gases
				8.3.2.1.1 Effect of different factors on gas permeability of the films
			8.3.2.2 Water vapor permeability of the films
			8.3.2.3 Water vapor permeability measuring method
		8.3.3 Thermal properties of the films
			8.3.3.1 Methods of determination thermal properties of the films
			8.3.3.2 Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis
				8.3.3.2.1 Differential scanning calorimetry
		8.3.4 Contact angle of water drop on film surface
		8.3.5 Antimicrobial properties of films
		8.3.6 Antioxidant property of the films
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
9 (Bio)composites of chitin/chitosan with natural fibers
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Fundamentals on natural fibers
		9.2.1 Physical methods of fiber treatment
		9.2.2 Chemical methods of fiber treatment
	9.3 Chitin/chitosan (bio)composites with natural fibers
		9.3.1 Plant fibers
			9.3.1.1 Flax
			9.3.1.2 Kenaf
			9.3.1.3 Jute
			9.3.1.4 Sunflower
			9.3.1.5 Rice
			9.3.1.6 Carnauba
			9.3.1.7 Barley
			9.3.1.8 Oil palm
			9.3.1.9 Sisal
			9.3.1.10 Date palm
			9.3.1.11 Pineapple
			9.3.1.12 Cotton
			9.3.1.13 Banana
			9.3.1.14 Durian
			9.3.1.15 Bamboo
			9.3.1.16 Sugarcane
			9.3.1.17 Wood
			9.3.1.18 Paper
			9.3.1.19 Lignocellulose
		9.3.2 Animal fibers
			9.3.2.1 Feathers
			9.3.2.2 Wool
			9.3.2.3 Silk fibroin
	9.4 Conclusion
	References
Index