Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science

Handbook of Categorization in Cognitive Science......Page 4
Preface......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 8
List of Contributors......Page 30
Bridging the Category Divide......Page 38
Organization of the book......Page 39
The notions of category and categorization......Page 44
The nature of categories: Discrete, vague, or other......Page 46
Are there modality effects on categories?......Page 47
Are there universal categories? Are there innate categories?......Page 48
Bridging the category divide......Page 50
References......Page 52
Part 1 – Categorization in Cognitive Science......Page 54
To Cognize is to Categorize: Cognition is Categorization......Page 56
Abstract......Page 57
Categorization......Page 58
Learning......Page 59
Learned categories......Page 60
Instrumental (operant) learning......Page 61
Categorical perception......Page 62
Learning algorithms......Page 63
Supervised learning......Page 64
Vanishing intersections?......Page 65
Direct sensorimotor invariants......Page 66
Abstraction and amnesia......Page 67
Invariance and recurrence......Page 68
Discrimination versus categorization......Page 69
Recoding and feature selection......Page 70
Learned categorical perception and the Whorf hypothesis......Page 71
Uncertainty reduction......Page 72
Sensorimotor grounding: direct and derivative......Page 73
The adaptive advantage of language: hearsay......Page 74
Cognitive science is not ontology......Page 76
Appendix A. There is nothing wrong with the “classical theory” of categorization......Page 77
Appendix B. Associationism begs the question of categorization......Page 78
References......Page 79
A Modular Approach to Grammatical Categories Evidence from Language Diversity and Contact......Page 82
Abstract......Page 83
Introduction......Page 84
Modularity and mismatch......Page 85
Grammaticalization: The case of pe in Sranan (Suriname)......Page 89
Mismatches in complexity of representations: The case of ku in Cuzco Quechua (Peru)......Page 91
The case of timap in Palikur......Page 92
‘For’ prepositions to become complementizers......Page 93
Lexical overspecification: Dutch gender and definiteness......Page 94
The status of null elements: Subjects in Sranan and Papiamentu......Page 95
Partially overlapping categories: predicate adjectives in Creoles......Page 96
Differences in lexical richness......Page 97
Evidence from language contact......Page 98
Otomanguean-Spanish language contact......Page 99
Borrowing of content words in Salishan languages......Page 102
Appendix......Page 104
References......Page 105
Philosophical Analysis as Cognitive Psychology: The Case of Empty Concepts*......Page 108
Abstract......Page 109
Misadventures of the Classical View......Page 110
Existential vs. (purely) intentional usage......Page 112
The inadequacies of Externalism......Page 114
The Quinean challenge......Page 119
The analytic data......Page 120
Quine......Page 122
Fodor......Page 123
Conclusion......Page 124
References......Page 125
Categories and Cognitive Anthropology*......Page 128
Abstract......Page 129
Cognition and culture, universalism and relativism......Page 130
Paradigms and taxonomies......Page 131
Kinship terminologies......Page 138
Color classification......Page 142
Ethnobiology......Page 146
Towards a science of the stimulus......Page 151
References......Page 153
Abstract......Page 156
Introduction......Page 157
Representing object categories in the brain......Page 158
Category-specific representation......Page 159
Feature-specific representation......Page 160
Summary......Page 162
Acquiring category knowledge......Page 163
The nature of event knowledge......Page 167
When categorization of action fails......Page 169
The perception of events......Page 170
Conclusion......Page 173
References......Page 174
Abstract......Page 178
Computation in cognitive science......Page 179
The great categorization debates......Page 181
From local features to global structures......Page 185
Categorization and reasoning......Page 190
Levels of cognition......Page 195
References......Page 198
Part 2 – Semantic Categories......Page 202
Abstract......Page 204
Introduction......Page 205
The notional approach to lexical categories......Page 206
The notional approach to lexical subcategories......Page 207
Structural approach to semantic categories......Page 209
Coordinators and subordinators......Page 212
English nouns......Page 218
References......Page 221
Emotion Categories across Languages......Page 224
Abstract......Page 225
Introduction......Page 226
The Method of Translation......Page 228
The Method of Mapping......Page 235
Theories of emotion......Page 247
Cross-cultural scenarios as a tool to compare emotion categories......Page 250
Conclusion......Page 255
References......Page 257
The World Color Survey Database......Page 260
Abstract......Page 261
The WCS: History and methodology......Page 262
Data processing and analysis......Page 265
Original format of the data and creation of the WCS Online Data Archive......Page 269
Universals of color naming......Page 271
Variation in color naming......Page 274
References......Page 277
Abstract......Page 280
Introduction......Page 281
Theories of concepts......Page 282
The ancient concept of an atom......Page 283
Revival of the concept of the atom......Page 285
Modern development of the concept of an atom......Page 286
Theories and meaning......Page 289
References......Page 290
Relations between Language and Thought: Individuation and the Count/Mass Distinction*......Page 292
Abstract......Page 293
Introduction......Page 294
Quine......Page 297
Abstract individuation in language and thought......Page 299
Crosslinguistic studies......Page 300
Language-on-language effects......Page 303
Material and shape cues in labeling and categorization......Page 305
References......Page 308
Definitions in Categorization and Similarity Judgments......Page 314
Abstract......Page 315
Introduction......Page 316
Method......Page 321
Results......Page 323
Method......Page 325
Results......Page 327
Discussion......Page 333
Method......Page 334
Results......Page 335
General discussion......Page 337
References......Page 339
Abstract......Page 342
Species are not categories......Page 343
Historical kinds......Page 344
Eternal kinds......Page 345
Individuals......Page 346
Concepts of individuals......Page 347
Concepts of substances more generally......Page 348
Substances encountered through language......Page 349
References......Page 352
Part 3 – Syntactic Categories......Page 354
Lexical, Functional, Crossover, and Multifunctional Categories*......Page 356
Abstract......Page 357
The system......Page 358
Natural classes......Page 359
Unnatural classes......Page 361
Categories and phrase structure......Page 362
Lexical and functional categories......Page 363
Articulation of functional categories......Page 364
Articulation below N and V......Page 366
Crossover projections......Page 367
Multifunctional categories......Page 372
Where do categorial distinctions reside?......Page 373
Conclusions......Page 381
References......Page 382
Isolating-Monocategorial-Associational Language......Page 384
Abstract......Page 385
What IMA Language is Like......Page 386
Monocategorial......Page 387
Associational......Page 388
Semiotics......Page 391
Phylogeny......Page 393
Ontogeny......Page 395
Typology......Page 396
Riau Indonesian: overview......Page 397
Riau Indonesian: analysis......Page 401
Riau Indonesian: A Relative IMA Language......Page 411
Cognition......Page 412
References......Page 414
Abstract......Page 418
The categories of lexical items......Page 419
Traditional categorization applied to LSQ......Page 421
Pronouns and definite determiners......Page 424
Pronouns in oral languages and in sign languages......Page 425
The effects of perceptual substances on linguistic forms......Page 426
Participant deixis......Page 427
Number......Page 428
Class/gender......Page 430
Case markings......Page 431
Consequences for linguistic categorization and universals......Page 433
References......Page 435
Syntactic Categories in Signed versus Spoken Languages......Page 438
Abstract......Page 439
Lexical categories......Page 440
Subordination......Page 442
Pronouns......Page 443
Verb agreement......Page 445
Analyses of spatial syntax......Page 446
Complications......Page 448
The use of space to represent space......Page 449
Word order......Page 450
Conclusion......Page 454
Appendix. Notational conventions......Page 455
References......Page 456
On Syntactic Categories......Page 460
References......Page 467
Part 4 – Acquisition of Categories......Page 468
Abstract......Page 470
Grammatical categories......Page 471
Two-word utterances and their analysis......Page 472
A semantic approach to grammatical categorization: Semantic bootstrapping......Page 473
Word order......Page 476
Inflection and inflectional class......Page 478
Function words......Page 482
Word classes......Page 484
Models of distributional learning......Page 486
Constraining the search space......Page 487
Conclusion......Page 488
References......Page 489
Abstract......Page 496
Introduction......Page 497
Space......Page 498
Shape......Page 502
Adding common ground......Page 503
Conceptual domains and lexical options......Page 504
Adding meaning in the course of conversation......Page 509
Universals in mapping?......Page 510
Conclusion......Page 513
References......Page 514
Abstract......Page 518
The acquisition of grammatical categories and the earliest binary distinction of function words and content words......Page 519
Input speech and the categorization of function words and content words......Page 523
Function words and language acquisition......Page 525
Acknowledgment......Page 529
References......Page 530
Abstract......Page 534
Introduction......Page 535
Testing category learning......Page 537
Learning of nonspeech categories......Page 539
Learning of speech categories......Page 543
Conclusion......Page 547
References......Page 548
Abstract......Page 552
Lexical and functional categories......Page 553
Lexical categories in L2 acquisition......Page 554
Functional categories in acquisition: Issues of evidence......Page 556
Morphology-before-syntax......Page 559
Syntax-before-morphology......Page 560
Acquiring versus losing categories and features......Page 561
Discussion......Page 566
References......Page 567
The Development of Categories in the Linguistic and Nonlinguistic Domains: the Same or Different?......Page 572
References......Page 578
Part 5 – Neuroscience of Categorization and Category Learning......Page 582
Multiple Systems of Perceptual Category Learning: Theory and Cognitive Tests......Page 584
Abstract......Page 585
Introduction......Page 586
COVIS......Page 587
The COVIS explicit system......Page 589
Switching attention in the explicit system......Page 591
Long-term storage of explicit category knowledge......Page 593
The COVIS procedural-learning system......Page 594
Competition between the COVIS explicit and implicit systems......Page 597
Dissociations between rule-based and information-integration category learning......Page 598
Conclusions......Page 600
A 1 Network implementation of the explicit system......Page 601
A 2 Network implementation of the implicit system......Page 603
References......Page 605
The Neuropsychology of Perceptual Category Learning*......Page 610
Abstract......Page 611
Competition between verbal and implicit systems (COVIS)......Page 612
Testing a priori Predictions of COVIS......Page 615
Perceptual category learning in neurological patients......Page 618
Nonlinear information-integration category learning in amnesia......Page 619
Model-based analyses......Page 621
Nonlinear information-integration category learning in striatal-damaged patients......Page 622
Rule-based category learning in PD......Page 624
Further study of information-integration category learning in PD......Page 628
Brief summary of the results......Page 630
General discussion......Page 632
References......Page 634
Abstract......Page 638
Evidence for categorical speech processing......Page 639
Prefrontal regions and motor speech categories......Page 642
Temporal–parietal regions and acoustic speech categories......Page 646
Cerebellar contributions to categorical production and perception......Page 648
Concluding remarks......Page 649
References......Page 650
Part 6 – Categories in Perception and Inference......Page 654
Situated Conceptualization......Page 656
Abstract......Page 657
Semantic memory......Page 658
Grounding the conceptual system in the modalities......Page 659
Reenactments of modality-specific states......Page 660
Simulators......Page 661
Sources of simulators......Page 662
Multimodal simulations implement situated conceptualizations......Page 663
Entrenched situated conceptualizations......Page 664
Pattern completion with entrenched situated conceptualizations......Page 665
Behavioral evidence for a modal nonmodular conceptual system......Page 666
Predictions for modular amodal vs. nonmodular modal theories......Page 667
Occlusion during property generation......Page 668
Size during property verification......Page 669
Shape during property verification......Page 670
Modality switching during property verification......Page 671
Movement direction in comprehension......Page 672
Behavioral evidence for embodiment in social cognition......Page 673
Neuroimaging studies of category knowledge......Page 674
Evidence for situated conceptualizations......Page 676
Evidence for setting inferences......Page 677
Evidence for action inferences......Page 678
Evidence for introspective state inferences......Page 679
Evidence for dynamical simulations......Page 680
Conclusion......Page 681
Amodal symbols......Page 682
Abstract concepts......Page 683
References......Page 684
Perceptual and Semantic Reorganization during Category Learning......Page 688
Abstract......Page 689
Concept learning and perception......Page 690
Object segmentation......Page 691
Experiment 1......Page 692
Method......Page 693
Experiment 2......Page 694
Method......Page 696
Results and discussion......Page 697
Conclusions on perceptual reorganization......Page 699
Integral versus separable dimensions......Page 701
Experiment 3......Page 702
Method......Page 703
Results and discussion......Page 704
Results and discussion......Page 706
Integrating perceptual and semantic reorganization......Page 708
Characterizing psychological features......Page 709
Characterizing featural change......Page 710
Prospects for synthesizing perceptual and semantic reorganization......Page 712
References......Page 713
Abstract......Page 716
Representing and doing: Two faces of concepts......Page 717
Variable mechanisms......Page 721
Perceptual vehicles......Page 723
Innateness......Page 725
Summary......Page 728
The abstract ideas objections......Page 729
References......Page 731
Part 7 – Grounding, Recognition, and Reasoning in Categorization......Page 734
Categorization, Reasoning, and Memory from a Neo-logical Point of View......Page 736
Abstract......Page 737
Inferences, Arguments, and Information......Page 738
Types of Creative Arguments......Page 740
Two Rather Incompatible Views in Cognitive Science......Page 742
Experiments on Memory and Logical Competence......Page 743
Logical Weakness and Classification of Errors......Page 746
A New Theory of Logical Error and Logical Competence......Page 747
The Cognitive Functions of Logic......Page 748
Corrective Inferences and Cognitive Progress......Page 750
The Mind as a Dynamic System: Inference and Memory......Page 752
General Conclusions: Categorization, Reasoning, and Memory......Page 753
References......Page 754
Abstract......Page 756
The symbol grounding problem......Page 757
Grounding symbols in cognition......Page 758
Connectionist modeling of category learning and naming......Page 761
Connectionist modeling of symbol grounding transfer......Page 764
Grounding symbols in simulated agents: The symbolic theft hypothesis......Page 766
The emergence of language in robots......Page 768
Discussion and conclusion......Page 770
References......Page 772
Embodied Categorization*......Page 776
Abstract......Page 777
Introduction: Embodied categorization......Page 778
Purely reactive categorizers......Page 780
Type I versus II problems [Clark and Thornton (1997)]......Page 781
Reactive categorizers that learn......Page 784
Representing categorizers......Page 786
Emulating and simulating categorizers......Page 789
Emulating categorizers......Page 790
Simulating categorizers......Page 792
Simulation of physical categories (folk physics)......Page 794
Simulation of intentional categories (folk psychology)......Page 795
Analogizing categorizers......Page 796
Conclusion......Page 798
References......Page 799
Categorization of Objects, Scenes, and Faces through Time......Page 804
Abstract......Page 805
A model of categorization......Page 806
Basic-level literature......Page 809
Stimulus Set?......Page 810
Response?......Page 811
Fossilized discrete processing cycles......Page 812
What can temporal bubbles reveal about a SLIP categorizer?......Page 814
Limited processing capacity......Page 815
The need for flexibility......Page 816
Categorization as an iterative process......Page 817
Compulsory feedforward processing sweeps......Page 818
Flexible iterative processing sweeps......Page 819
Empirical evidence for flexible and iterative processing sweeps......Page 821
General discussion......Page 823
References......Page 825
Adaptive Categorization and Neural Networks*......Page 830
Abstract......Page 831
The problem of divergence......Page 835
The solution: dual Hebbian/anti-Hebbian learning......Page 836
Stabilization......Page 837
Additional properties of the learning rule......Page 838
The Eidos model......Page 839
Methodology......Page 840
Results......Page 841
The problem of convergence......Page 843
The solution: Unlearnin......Page 845
Results......Page 846
Current trends: Elimination of spurious attractors......Page 849
Conclusion......Page 850
References......Page 851
A Grounded Mind in a Robotic Body......Page 854
References......Page 857
Part 8 – Machine Category Learning......Page 858
Concept Learning and Nonmonotonic Reasoning¹......Page 860
Abstract......Page 861
Three kinds of cognitive representations......Page 862
Learning in symbolic systems......Page 863
Conceptual spaces as a representational framework......Page 864
The origin of quality dimensions......Page 866
Properties and concepts......Page 868
Prototypes and conceptual spaces......Page 869
Learning in conceptual spaces......Page 871
The role of similarity in learning......Page 873
Nonmonotonic aspects of concepts......Page 875
Change from general category to subordinate......Page 876
Context effects......Page 877
Conclusion......Page 878
References......Page 879
Categorization in Symbolic Data Analysis......Page 882
Abstract......Page 883
Introduction......Page 884
From individuals to concepts......Page 885
From categories to concepts: reification of a category in a concept......Page 886
Sources of symbolic data......Page 888
Building a symbolic data table by reification of categories in concepts......Page 889
Description of concepts when the individuals are described by fuzzy data......Page 890
Adding conceptual variables, joining concepts, and the DB2SO module of SODAS......Page 891
Modeling concepts with four spaces: “individuals,” “concepts,” “descriptions,” and “symbolic objects”......Page 892
Extent of concepts and symbolic objects......Page 893
Concepts: Four approaches......Page 895
Finding a unique description for a concept: “T-norm of descriptive generalization”......Page 896
Finding several descriptions for a concept......Page 897
A generalized conceptual lattice......Page 898
Main steps......Page 900
Descriptive SDA in SODAS......Page 901
Final remarks......Page 902
References......Page 903
Abstract......Page 906
The method......Page 907
Finding and remaining in favorable environmental areas......Page 908
Discriminating objects with different shapes on the basis of tactile information......Page 910
Behavior emerging from the dynamic interaction between the agent and its environment......Page 913
Action-mediated sensory states......Page 915
Discriminating larger and smaller cylindrical objects......Page 916
Navigating toward a target area of the environment......Page 918
Integrating sensorimotor information over time and the emergence of complex internal categories......Page 920
The self-localization problem......Page 921
Conclusions......Page 924
References......Page 925
An Information-based Discussion of Vagueness*: Six Scenarios Leading to Vagueness......Page 928
Abstract......Page 929
Introduction......Page 930
The information framework......Page 931
Graduality and partial preorderings......Page 932
Membership functions as total preorders......Page 933
Set-theoretic operations......Page 934
Graduality is a useful form of vagueness......Page 935
Precisely defined vs. poorly defined properties......Page 936
Vagueness as limited perception......Page 937
Refining precisely defined properties using closeness relations......Page 938
Single agent vs. multiple agents......Page 939
Ill-known attribute values and twofold sets......Page 941
Approximately described sets......Page 942
Concluding remarks......Page 943
References......Page 944
Part 9 – Data Mining for Categories and Ontologies......Page 948
A Smooth Introduction to Symbolic Methods for Knowledge Discovery......Page 950
Abstract......Page 951
Introduction......Page 952
An introductory example......Page 953
Data mining methods......Page 954
Lattice-based classification......Page 955
Frequent itemset search and association rule extraction......Page 957
Frequent itemset search......Page 958
Applications......Page 960
The chemical context......Page 961
Mining of a reaction database......Page 962
Discussion......Page 963
An experiment in biology......Page 964
An introduction to Web mining......Page 965
Conclusion......Page 967
References......Page 968
Genre-Specific Text Mining and Extensional Inductive Concept Recognition: A Pseudocognitive Approach......Page 972
Abstract......Page 973
Text mining......Page 974
Our approach......Page 975
Text retrieval......Page 976
Grammatical tagging......Page 977
Recursion......Page 978
A tagging language......Page 979
Automatic learning of new tagging rules......Page 980
Concept recognition in texts......Page 981
Terms and collocations......Page 982
ACT as a friendly interface helping the expert......Page 983
ACT as an inductive program......Page 984
Conclusion......Page 988
Acknowledgments......Page 989
References......Page 990
Classification and Categorization in Computer-Assisted Reading and Text Analysis......Page 992
Abstract......Page 993
CARAT: General presentation......Page 994
Difficulties with the technology......Page 995
The nature of reading and analyzing a text......Page 996
Definitions of classification and categorization for CARAT......Page 998
Text categorization......Page 999
Methodology for text classifying and categorizing......Page 1000
Step 1: Identification of units of information and domains of information......Page 1001
Step 2: Cleaning and filtering......Page 1002
Step 3: The matrix......Page 1003
The classification process......Page 1004
Step 7: Evaluation......Page 1005
Thematic analysis......Page 1006
Categorical exploration of philosophical texts......Page 1007
Content analysis......Page 1009
The workshop......Page 1011
Applications......Page 1012
References......Page 1013
Abstract......Page 1016
Introduction......Page 1017
Knowledge represented as graph structures......Page 1019
Learning heuristic knowledge......Page 1021
Viability conditions......Page 1022
The complexity of learning......Page 1023
Categorization of knowledge in layers......Page 1025
References......Page 1026
Part 10 – The Naturalization of Categories......Page 1028
Abstract......Page 1030
Nominalism......Page 1031
Ockham’s cleaver......Page 1032
Motivations......Page 1036
Nominalistic constraints for the theory of concepts......Page 1038
Represented things as singular......Page 1039
Representations as singular......Page 1041
References......Page 1043
Why do we think Racially?......Page 1046
Abstract......Page 1047
Introduction......Page 1048
Racial skepticism......Page 1049
Races are transient kinds......Page 1050
Merits and problems......Page 1052
The nature of racialism......Page 1053
Empirical evidence......Page 1054
Merits and problems......Page 1056
Empirical evidence......Page 1058
Merits and problems......Page 1059
“Ethnies” are not mere coalitions......Page 1061
An adaptive scenario: Ethnic cognition and the exaptation of human folk biology......Page 1062
Empirical evidence......Page 1063
Merits and problems......Page 1064
Conclusion......Page 1066
References......Page 1068
Neurosemantics and Categories......Page 1072
Abstract......Page 1073
Why “neuro”?......Page 1074
The explanandum......Page 1076
Representations......Page 1077
Transformation......Page 1078
A representational hierarchy......Page 1079
The representation relation......Page 1080
Systems......Page 1081
Vehicles......Page 1082
Referents......Page 1083
Content......Page 1084
Discussion......Page 1086
Misrepresentation......Page 1087
References......Page 1089
Abstract......Page 1092
Introduction......Page 1093
What is intuitive about conceptual analysis?......Page 1094
Cognitive privileges, metaphysical privileges, and the Transparency Thesis......Page 1095
Against privileges......Page 1096
The inward approach......Page 1098
Conceptual truths or truths about concepts?......Page 1099
The outward approach......Page 1101
‘Bachelors are unmarried men’ is about facts......Page 1102
Explaining away the illusion......Page 1104
A “mixed bag”......Page 1105
References......Page 1107
Crisis! What Crisis?......Page 1110
Index......Page 1118
Plates......Page 1126