Handbook of Biodiversity Methods: Survey, Evaluation and Monitoring

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 13
Acknowledgements......Page 15
Part I . Planning......Page 17
1.1.1 General objectives of surveying and monitoring......Page 19
1.1.2 Common Standards Monitoring in the UK......Page 21
2.1.1 What features of conservation interest are to be monitored?......Page 22
2.1.2 What is the objective for each feature?......Page 24
Quantity: composition......Page 26
Quantity......Page 28
Population dynamics......Page 29
Population structure......Page 30
2.1.3 How often should monitoring be carried out?......Page 31
2.1.6 What monitoring has been undertaken and are baseline surveys required?......Page 32
2.2 Selection of methods for monitoring each attribute......Page 33
2.2.3 Will the method provide the appropriate type of measurement?......Page 35
2.2.4 Can the method measure the attribute across an appropriate range of conditions?......Page 36
Observer......Page 37
Weather......Page 38
2.3 Designing a sampling strategy......Page 39
2.3.2 Will the appropriate level of precision be achieved?......Page 41
2.3.3 Should sample locations be permanent or not?......Page 43
Locating samples by judgement......Page 45
Random sampling......Page 46
Systematic sampling......Page 47
Stratified sampling......Page 49
Multi-stage and cluster sampling......Page 50
Stratified systematic unaligned sampling......Page 51
2.3.5 How many samples will be required?......Page 52
Achieving a desired level of precision......Page 54
2.3.7 How will consistency be assured?......Page 56
2.4.1 Are there sufficient long-term resources available?......Page 58
2.4.2 Are personnel sufficiently trained and experienced?......Page 61
2.5.1 How will data be recorded in the field?......Page 62
2.5.3 Who will hold and manage the data?......Page 64
2.6.2 What are the steps in analysing data?......Page 65
2.6.3 Description and presentation of data......Page 66
2.6.4 Making inferences about the site or population......Page 67
T-tests......Page 70
Methods based on ranks......Page 71
Bootstrapping......Page 72
Categorical data......Page 73
Chi-squared tests......Page 74
Detecting trends......Page 75
Data with many zeros......Page 76
Is transformation of the data necessary before statistical analysis?......Page 77
Interpreting analyses......Page 78
Presenting results......Page 79
2.6.6 What statistical software is available for the analysis of data?......Page 80
3.3 Identification of Valuable Ecosystem Components......Page 81
3.4.2 The importance of rarity......Page 84
3.4.3 Levels and scales of threat and population importance......Page 86
3.5 Species and habitat conservation priority lists......Page 88
3.5.1 IUCN Red Lists......Page 89
3.5.3 Bern Convention......Page 91
3.5.5 European Union Birds and Habitats Directives......Page 92
3.5.6 Wildlife & Countryside Act......Page 93
3.5.8 Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 2004......Page 94
3.5.10 UK Biodiversity Action Plan listed habitats and species......Page 95
Threshold criteria versus target-led approaches......Page 97
Complementarity considerations......Page 98
Diversity......Page 99
Size (extent)......Page 100
Representativeness......Page 101
3.6.4 Scoring systems......Page 102
3.7.2 Biosphere Reserves......Page 104
3.7.5 Special Areas of Conservation (SACs)......Page 105
Balancing the national lists......Page 106
3.7.6 The Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention)......Page 107
3.7.8 Sites of Special Scientific Interest......Page 109
3.7.10 Wildlife Sites......Page 110
3.8 Site evaluations for management planning......Page 111
3.9 Site evaluations for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)......Page 112
3.9.1 EIA evaluation criteria......Page 113
Part II . Habitats......Page 119
4.2 Habitat survey and monitoring......Page 121
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 123
Hydrology......Page 125
Stand extent and structure......Page 127
Regeneration......Page 128
Open spaces......Page 129
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 130
5.2.2 Specific issues affecting the monitoring of the habitat......Page 131
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 133
Management requirements and external impacts......Page 135
5.3.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of habitat......Page 136
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 137
Management requirements and external impacts......Page 138
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 140
5.5.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of habitat......Page 141
Management requirements and external impacts......Page 142
5.6.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of habitat......Page 143
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 144
5.7.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of the habitat......Page 145
Management requirements and external impacts......Page 146
5.8.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of habitat......Page 147
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 148
Management requirements and external impacts......Page 151
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 152
Management requirements and external impacts......Page 155
Management requirements and external impacts......Page 157
5.11.2 Specific issues affecting the surveying and monitoring of habitat......Page 158
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 159
5.12.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of habitat......Page 160
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 161
5.13.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of habitat......Page 162
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 163
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 164
Attributes for assessing habitat condition......Page 166
5.16.2 Specific issues affecting the survey and monitoring of habitat......Page 168
Data collection......Page 170
Resolution trade-offs......Page 171
Applications of satellite remote sensing......Page 174
Recommended uses......Page 181
Selection of photography......Page 183
Habitat classification and identification......Page 184
Mapping......Page 185
Calculation of habitat areas......Page 187
Comparisons between photographs......Page 188
Time efficiency......Page 189
Equipment required......Page 190
Frequency and timing of photographs......Page 191
Fixed-angle system......Page 192
Centre pole system......Page 193
Summary of advantages and disadvantages......Page 194
6.1.5 Phase I habitat mapping......Page 195
Expertise required......Page 196
Outline method......Page 197
Data storage and analysis......Page 198
Summary of advantages and disadvantages......Page 199
Recommended uses......Page 200
Expertise required......Page 203
Scale of base maps......Page 204
Boundaries of vegetation......Page 205
Identifying communities......Page 206
Data storage and analysis......Page 208
Analysis and prediction of change......Page 209
Summary of advantages and disadvantages......Page 210
Indicator strips......Page 211
Soil profile and texture......Page 212
Recommended uses......Page 213
Expertise required......Page 214
Time efficiency......Page 215
Field methods......Page 216
Recommended uses......Page 217
Recommended uses......Page 218
Data storage and analysis......Page 220
Field methods......Page 221
Data storage and analysis......Page 223
Expertise required......Page 224
Field methods......Page 225
Advantages......Page 227
Recommended uses......Page 228
Expertise required......Page 229
Method of recording......Page 230
Follow-up survey......Page 231
Disadvantages......Page 232
Equipment required......Page 233
Disadvantages......Page 234
Recommended uses......Page 235
Field methods......Page 236
Disadvantages......Page 237
Equipment required......Page 238
Data storage and analysis......Page 239
Expertise required......Page 240
Plot shape......Page 241
Data measurements......Page 242
Data analysis......Page 244
Recommended uses......Page 245
Time efficiency......Page 246
Advantages......Page 247
Expertise required......Page 248
Point-centred quarter method......Page 249
Time efficiency......Page 250
Field methods......Page 251
Disadvantages......Page 252
7.1.1 Background......Page 253
7.1.3 Monitoring methods......Page 254
Effects on plant growth and reproduction:......Page 255
7.2.1 Background......Page 256
Monitoring the geographical extent of burns......Page 257
Monitoring the recovery of vegetation following a burn......Page 258
7.3.3 Monitoring methods......Page 259
7.4 Vegetation surveys in relation to developments......Page 260
8.2 Protection Status in the UK and EU......Page 261
8.3 Conservation status in the UK......Page 262
Using Annex I of the EU Habitats Directive for habitat evaluation......Page 263
Using the local BAP process to evaluate habitats......Page 264
Part III . Species......Page 267
9.1 Species surveying and monitoring......Page 269
10.2 Terminology......Page 271
10.4.2 Methods......Page 273
10.5.1 Principles......Page 274
10.5.4 Methods and analysis......Page 275
10.6.1 General principles......Page 276
10.6.2 Line and point transects......Page 277
Distance bands......Page 278
10.6.4 Analysis......Page 279
10.7.1 General principles......Page 280
Analysis......Page 281
Analysis......Page 282
10.9.2 Methods and analysis......Page 283
10.11.1 Principles......Page 284
10.11.4 Mark–recapture analysis......Page 285
11 . Fungi......Page 287
Field methods......Page 288
Principles......Page 290
Field methods......Page 291
11.3.1 Key evaluation considerations......Page 292
11.3.2 Protection status in the UK and EU......Page 293
11.3 4 Site designation criteria......Page 294
12 . Lichens......Page 295
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 296
Data recording......Page 298
Field methods......Page 299
12.3.1 Key evaluation considerations......Page 300
12.3.2 Protection status in the UK and EU......Page 301
12.3.4 Site designation criteria......Page 302
13.1.2 Population size......Page 304
Field methods......Page 305
Principles......Page 307
13.3.1 Key evaluation considerations......Page 308
13.3.3 Conservation status in the UK......Page 309
13.2.4 Site designation criteria......Page 310
14 . Aquatic macrophytes and algae......Page 311
Principles......Page 312
Field methods......Page 314
Field methods......Page 315
14.3.1 Introduction......Page 316
14.4.1 Key evaluation considerations......Page 317
14.4.4 Site designation criteria......Page 318
Vegetative and flowering plants......Page 319
Frequency of monitoring......Page 320
15.1.3 Plant growth and reproduction......Page 321
15.1.4 Population dynamics and structure......Page 322
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 323
Grids......Page 328
Field methods......Page 330
Principles......Page 331
Field methods......Page 332
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 333
Key evaluation considerations......Page 334
Protection status in the EU and UK......Page 335
Site designation criteria......Page 336
Evaluation of vascular plants......Page 337
16.2 General methods......Page 338
Field methods......Page 340
Field methods......Page 341
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 342
16.3.4 Site designation criteria......Page 343
17.1.4 Population structure......Page 344
Timed counts......Page 345
Field methods......Page 347
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 348
17.3.3 Conservation status in the UK......Page 349
17.3.4 Site designation criteria......Page 350
18.1.4 Population structure......Page 351
Principles......Page 352
Field methods......Page 354
18.3.2 Protection status in the UK and EU......Page 355
18.3.4 Site designation criteria......Page 356
19 . Other terrestrial invertebrates......Page 357
19.2.2 Method......Page 358
19.2.3 Interpretation of results......Page 359
Field methods......Page 360
Field methods......Page 364
Field methods......Page 365
Field methods......Page 366
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 368
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 369
Field methods......Page 370
Field methods......Page 371
Field methods......Page 372
19.3.3 Conservation status in the UK......Page 373
19.3.4 Site designation criteria......Page 374
20.1.1 Community composition......Page 375
Field methods......Page 376
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 378
Field methods......Page 379
Principles......Page 380
20.4 Aquatic invertebrate conservation evaluation criteria......Page 381
Wildlife & Countryside Act......Page 382
21.1.1 Population size......Page 384
21.1.2 Breeding success and population structure......Page 385
Field methods......Page 391
Bankside counts......Page 392
Field methods......Page 393
Field methods......Page 394
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 395
Principles......Page 396
Principles......Page 397
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 398
Principles......Page 399
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 400
Ramsar Convention (The Wetlands Convention)......Page 401
Sites of Special Scientific Interest......Page 402
22.1.2 Breeding success......Page 403
Principles......Page 404
Field methods......Page 407
Principles......Page 408
Trap placement......Page 409
Principles......Page 410
Field methods......Page 411
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 413
Principles......Page 414
Principles......Page 415
PIT tags: all amphibians......Page 416
Protection status in the UK and EU......Page 417
Conservation status in the UK......Page 418
Site designation criteria......Page 419
23.2 General methods......Page 420
Field methods......Page 422
Field methods......Page 423
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 424
Marking......Page 425
Conservation status in the UK......Page 426
Site designation criteria......Page 427
24.1.2 Breeding success and productivity......Page 428
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 429
Field methods......Page 431
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 432
Field methods......Page 433
24.3.2 Flightline surveys......Page 434
24.3.5 Nocturnal surveys......Page 435
Population survey: breeding season......Page 436
Black Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus......Page 437
Key evaluation considerations......Page 438
Wild Birds Directive......Page 443
Species of European Conservation Concern......Page 444
UK BAP list......Page 445
Sites of Special Scientific Interest......Page 448
25.1.1 Number of roosts......Page 449
Droppings and remains......Page 454
Survey times......Page 455
Principles......Page 456
Principles......Page 457
Principles......Page 458
Field methods......Page 459
Principles......Page 460
Principles......Page 461
25.3.2 Protection status in the UK and EU......Page 462
25.3.3 Conservation status in the UK......Page 463
Local evaluation......Page 464
26.2 General methods......Page 466
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 471
Standing crop......Page 472
Data analysis and interpretation......Page 473
Field methods......Page 474
Field methods......Page 475
Field methods......Page 476
Field methods......Page 477
Field methods......Page 478
Field methods......Page 479
26.5.1 Water Vole......Page 480
26.5.3 Badger......Page 481
26.5.4 Dormouse......Page 482
26.5.5 Red Squirrel......Page 484
Protection status in the UK and EU......Page 485
Site designation criteria......Page 487
Appendix 1 Monitoring and reporting obligations under international conservation agreements......Page 489
Appendix 2 Relationship between BAP Priority Habitat and Broad Habitat categories and Habitats Directive nomenclature......Page 494
Bryophytes......Page 506
Vascular plants......Page 507
Appendix 4 Determining appropriate quadrat size for vegetation sampling......Page 509
Photographs......Page 511
Global positioning systems (GPS)......Page 512
Appendix 6 Equipment required for undertaking different types of survey......Page 513
Methods for Species assessment (Chapter 10)......Page 535
Lichens (Chapter 12)......Page 536
Aquatic Macrophytes and algae (Chapter 14)......Page 537
Dragonflies and damselflies (chapter 16)......Page 538
Other terrestrial invertebrates (chapter 19)......Page 539
Fish (chapter 21)......Page 540
Amphibians (chapter 22)......Page 541
Birds (Chapter 24)......Page 542
Other Mammals (Chapter 26)......Page 545
References......Page 546
Monitoring terms and acronyms......Page 567
Statistical terms......Page 568
Index......Page 572