Handbook of Atmospheric Science: Principles and Applications

Contents......Page 6
List of contributors......Page 10
Preface......Page 12
Part 1: Principles of Atmospheric Science......Page 14
1.1 Introduction......Page 16
1.2 Creation of the planets and their earliest atmospheres......Page 17
1.3 The Earth’s atmosphere before life began......Page 22
1.4 Comparison of Venus, Earth, and Mars......Page 24
1.5 Life and the Earth’s atmosphere......Page 27
1.6 Carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere......Page 31
1.7 The rise of oxygen concentrations......Page 33
1.8 Protection of life from ultraviolet radiation......Page 38
References......Page 42
2.2 The structure of the Earth’s atmosphere......Page 48
2.3 Solar and terrestrial radiation......Page 50
2.4 Absorption of radiation by trace gases......Page 52
2.5 Solar radiation, ozone, and the stratospheric temperature profile......Page 53
2.7 A simple model of radiation transfer......Page 55
2.8 A brief overview of more complex radiative transfer......Page 58
2.9 Conduction, convection, and sensible and latent heat......Page 59
2.10 The energy budget for the Earth’s atmosphere......Page 65
2.11 Energy transfer in the atmosphere and ocean......Page 68
2.12 Solar radiation and the biosphere......Page 69
References......Page 71
3.1 Introduction......Page 72
3.2 Polar climates......Page 75
3.3 Temperate latitude climates......Page 82
3.4 Tropical climates......Page 88
References......Page 100
4.2 The global carbon cycle......Page 103
4.3 The global nitrogen cycle......Page 109
4.4 The global sulfur cycle......Page 112
4.5 The global halogen cycle......Page 118
References......Page 130
5.2 Primary pollutants......Page 137
5.3 Long-lived pollutants......Page 151
5.4 Secondary gaseous pollutants......Page 153
5.5 Other hazardous air pollutants......Page 156
5.6 Particulate material......Page 158
References......Page 162
6.1 Introduction......Page 169
6.2 Initiation of photochemistry by light......Page 171
6.3 Tropospheric oxidation chemistry......Page 172
6.4 Nitrogen oxides and the photostationary state......Page 174
6.5 Production and destruction of ozone......Page 177
6.6 The tropospheric ozone budget......Page 181
6.7 The role of hydrocarbons......Page 182
6.8 Urban chemistry......Page 184
6.9 The spring ozone maximum......Page 186
6.10 Nighttime oxidation chemistry......Page 189
6.11 Ozone–alkene chemistry......Page 193
6.13 Sulfur chemistry......Page 199
References......Page 201
7.1 Introduction......Page 205
7.2 The structure of the stratosphere......Page 207
7.3 Gas-phase chemistry of the stratosphere......Page 213
7.4 Aerosols and clouds in the stratosphere......Page 218
7.5 Heterogeneous chemistry of the stratosphere......Page 219
7.6 Future perturbations to the stratosphere......Page 221
References......Page 223
8.1 The aqueous phase in the atmosphere......Page 228
8.2 Nonvolatile solutes......Page 231
8.3 Reactions and photochemistry......Page 236
8.4 Conclusions......Page 241
References......Page 242
9.1 Introduction......Page 245
9.3 Aerosol sources......Page 247
9.4 Heterogeneous chemistry......Page 255
9.5 Climate forcing......Page 257
9.6 Tropospheric and stratospheric aerosols: remote sensing......Page 265
Appendix: nomenclature......Page 267
References......Page 268
10.2 The atmospheric boundary layer......Page 272
10.3 Atmospheric dispersion......Page 283
10.4 Mean concentrations......Page 287
10.5 Conclusions......Page 289
References......Page 291
11.2 Basic physical descriptions and models......Page 292
11.3 Applications to weather systems......Page 316
11.4 On airmasses......Page 324
11.5 Practicalities: how to perform a synoptic analysis......Page 325
11.6 Conclusions......Page 328
References......Page 329
12.2 Dry deposition of gases......Page 331
12.3 Bulk resistance (“big leaf”) model......Page 332
12.4 Dry deposition of particles......Page 341
12.5 Measuring dry deposition......Page 344
12.6 Wet deposition......Page 346
References......Page 351
Part 2: Problems, Tools, and Applications......Page 354
13.1 Introduction......Page 356
13.2 Historical evidence of the impact of human activities on climate......Page 358
13.3 Future outlook of climate and ozone changes......Page 372
13.4 Potential impacts of stratospheric ozone and climate changes......Page 381
13.5 Pathways to policy considerations......Page 384
13.6 Conclusions......Page 387
References......Page 388
14.1 Introduction......Page 393
14.2 Monitoring frameworks......Page 394
14.3 The regional ozone problem......Page 395
14.4 Deposition of nitrogen and sulfur across Europe: acidification and eutrophication......Page 401
14.5 Arctic haze......Page 405
References......Page 412
15.1 Introduction......Page 416
15.2 Pollutants and sources......Page 419
15.3 From emission to pollution levels......Page 422
15.4 Urban-scale impacts......Page 428
15.5 Means of mitigation......Page 435
15.6 Case studies......Page 439
15.7 Conclusions......Page 449
References......Page 450
16.2 Requirements......Page 456
16.4 Sampling techniques......Page 457
16.6 Monitoring air quality......Page 458
16.7 Monitoring meteorological parameters......Page 478
16.8 Monitoring of the middle to upper atmosphere......Page 480
References......Page 487
17.1 Introduction......Page 490
17.2 Emission inventory procedures......Page 494
17.3 Emissions from road traffic......Page 500
17.5 Emissions at airports......Page 506
17.6 Emissions from shipping......Page 507
17.7 Area emission sources......Page 508
17.9 A comparison of the London and Tokyo atmospheric emissions inventories......Page 511
17.10 Conclusions......Page 516
References......Page 517
18.2 Emission sources recognized by atmospheric dispersion models......Page 520
18.4 Meteorological data requirements of atmospheric dispersion models......Page 521
18.5 Types of atmospheric dispersion model......Page 526
18.6 Input data requirements......Page 527
18.9 Choice of dispersion model......Page 533
Appendix: list of models......Page 537
References......Page 540
19.1 Introduction......Page 542
19.2 The modeling tools......Page 546
19.3 Evaluation of the modeling tools......Page 564
19.4 Use of the modeling tools......Page 568
19.5 Latest results......Page 571
References......Page 574
20.1 Introduction......Page 579
20.2 Critical levels of air pollutants......Page 581
20.3 Methods to derive critical loads for terrestrial ecosystems......Page 582
20.4 Critical loads of nitrogen......Page 587
20.5 Critical loads of acidity......Page 594
20.6 Critical loads for heavy metals......Page 602
20.7 The use of critical loads in policy assessments......Page 608
References......Page 614
21.1 Introduction to air quality management......Page 620
21.2 Carbon monoxide......Page 624
21.3 Benzene......Page 626
21.5 Lead......Page 628
21.6 Nitrogen dioxide......Page 629
21.7 Sulfur dioxide......Page 631
21.8 Particles......Page 633
21.9 Ozone......Page 635
21.10 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons......Page 636
21.11 Dispersion models for local air quality management......Page 637
21.12 Accuracy of air pollution models......Page 641
21.13 Example of a method of estimating uncertainty......Page 642
21.14 Carbon dioxide......Page 643
References......Page 644
C......Page 646
E......Page 647
N......Page 648
S......Page 649
W......Page 650
Color plates......Page 194