Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis for Children with Autism: Clinical Guide to Assessment and Treatment

Preface
Contents
1: History and Overview of Applied Behavior Analysis
	Early Influencers of Behavior Analysis
		Edward Thorndike
		Ivan Pavlov
		John B. Watson
	Skinner’s Science of Behavior Analysis
		Brief Biographical Information
		Skinner’s Contributions to Behavior Analysis
			Radical Behaviorism
			Skinner’s Experimental Analysis of Behavior
			Applications of Skinner’s Science at the Societal and Individual Level
				Societal Level
				Individual Level
	Early Applied Studies
	Clinical Applications of ABA
		Etiology and History of Autism
		Types of Treatments for Autism
		Behavioral Interventions for Autism
			Examples of Comprehensive Treatment Models (CTMs)
				UCLA Young Autism Project
				The TEACCH Program
				The Denver Model/Early Start Denver Model
				Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention (EIBI)
			Examples of Focused Intervention Practices
		Research Support for Behavioral Interventions
		ABA Outside of Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
	Evolution of the Science and Practice of Applied Behavior Analysis
	Current State of the Practice of Applied Behavior Analysis
		Professional Certification and Licensing for Behavior Analysts
		Professional Ethics and Treatment Guidelines
		Pursuit of Continued Quality Assurance
	References
2: Foundations of Applied Behavior Analysis
	Introduction
	Basic Concepts and Principles
		Reinforcement
			Positive Reinforcement
			Negative Reinforcement
			Unconditioned and Conditioned Reinforcers
		Punishment
			Punishment in Practice
		Extinction
		Chaining
		Feedback
		Shaping
		Graduated Guidance and Modeling
	Summary
	References
3: Applied Behavior Analysis and Its Application to Autism and Autism-Related Disorders
	Introduction
	Conceptual Basis and Foundation of Applied Behavior Analysis
	Concepts and Application
		Consequence: Reinforcement and Reinforcement-Based Procedures
			Token Economy
			Differential Reinforcement
			Extinction
		Consequence: Punishment and Punishment-Based Procedures
		Antecedent Approaches to Treatment
			Establishing Operations
			Stimulus Control
			Choice
			Prompt Procedures
		Combining Antecedent and Consequence-Based Components
	ABA-Based Comprehensive Approaches to Autism Treatment
		Intervention Programs That Utilize Applied Behavior Analysis Procedures
			University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) Young Autism Project (YAP)
			Treatment and Education of Autistic and Related Communication-Handicapped Children (TEACCH)
			Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions
	ABA Across the Lifespan
	Future Directions and Summary
	References
4: Comprehensive Assessment of Autism Spectrum Disorders
	Overview
	Diagnostic Domains
		Autism-Specific
		Cognitive
		Adaptive
		Speech/Language
		Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors and Interests
		Sensory Abnormalities
		Psychological Comorbidities
			Attention
			Feeding Problems
			Sleeping Problems
			Executive Functioning
			Challenging/Disruptive Behaviors
	Diagnostic Considerations
		Regression of Skills
		Age Milestone Transitions
		Compensatory Behaviors
		Barriers to Diagnosis
		Comorbidities
	Recommendations and Treatment Planning
	Feedback
	Future Directions
	Conclusion
	References
5: Functional Assessment in Applied Behavior Analysis
	Historical Foundations
	The Functions of Problem Behavior
	The Standard Model of Functional Analysis
	Approaches to Assessment Derived from the Standard Model
	Informant Methods
	Descriptive Analyses
	Topography-Specific Functional Assessments
	Data Analysis and Clinical Decision-Making
	Treatment Informed by Functional Assessment
	Social Validity and Ethical Considerations
	Criticisms and Future Directions
	Conclusion
	Appendix 1: Standard Functional Analysis Model Protocol
		General
		Alone/Ignore/No Interaction
		Attention
		Demand
		Play
		Other Considerations
	References
6: Operational Definitions, Observation, and Behavioral Recording in Applied Behavior Analysis
	Introduction
	Target Behaviors
		Defining Target Behavior
		The Importance of Precise Definitions
		Types of Definitions
	Measurement
		Repeatability
		Temporal Extent
		Temporal Locus
	Derivative Measures
		Trials-to-Criterion
		Percentage
	Time Sampling
	Permanent Product Recording
	Elements of Optimal Behavior Measurement
		Reliability
		Accuracy
		Validity
		Believability
	Challenges (Artifact and Bias)
		Observer Drift
		Reactivity
		Expectation
		Strategies to Overcome Challenges
			Observer Drift
			Reactivity
			Expectation
			Other Considerations
	Interobserver Agreement (IOA)
		Reliability of Data
		Types of IOA
		Total Count IOA
		Exact Count IOA
		Mean Count per Interval (Partial Agreement-Within-Intervals) IOA
		Trial-by-Trial
		Total Duration IOA
		Mean Duration per Occurrence IOA
		Interval-by-Interval IOA
		Scored-Interval IOA (Occurrence IOA)
		Unscored-Interval IOA (Non-occurrence IOA)
		Acceptable Levels
		How Often Should It Be Collected?
		How Should IOA Be Reported?
		Applications
			Total Count IOA
			Mean Count per Interval IOA
			Exact Count IOA
			Trial-by-Trial
			Total Duration
			Mean Duration per Occurrence IOA
			Interval-by-Interval IOA
			Scored Interval IOA
			Non-Scored Interval IOA
		Conclusion
	References
7: Choice and Preference Assessments
	Choice
		Choice Behavior Defined
		Choice Contingencies
			Choice Responses
			Environmental Arrangements That Evoke Choice
			Consequences of Choice Responses
		The Function of Choice Opportunities and Choice Responses
		Preference for Choice
	Preference
		Preference Defined
		Stimulus Preference Assessment Methods
		Direct Assessments That Use Selection Measures
			Single-Stimulus Preference Assessments
			Paired-Stimulus Preference Assessments
			Multiple-Stimulus Preference Assessments
		Direct Assessments That Use Duration Measures
			Single-Stimulus Preference Assessments
			Multiple-Stimulus Preference Assessments
	Variables That Affect Choice and Preference
		Stimulus Selection
		Magnitude/Duration of Access Time
		Preference Stability and Motivating Operations
	Validating Preference Assessment Outcomes
		Assessments of Absolute Reinforcer Effect
		Assessments of Relative Reinforcer Effect
		When to Conduct a Reinforcer Assessment
	Summary
	References
8: School-Based Interventions for Students with Autism
	Introduction
	Educational Policies and Identification of Autism
	Educational Policies and School-Based Interventions for Autism
		Evidence-Based Interventions for Autism
		Antecedent-Based Strategies
		Reinforcement-Based Strategies
		Supports for Mental Health/Behavioral Disorders
		Considerations for Individual and Cultural Diversity
	Systems-Based Intervention Models and Multi-Disciplinary Collaboration
	Summary and Recommendations for Behavior Analysis
	References
9: Communication Assessment and Intervention
	Introduction
	Communication Impairment in Children with Autism
	Communication Assessment
	Communication Intervention
	Instructional Tactics
	Defining Features of ABA-Based Communication Interventions
	Functional Communication
	Structured and Naturalistic Intervention
	Prelinguistic Behavior
	Visual Strategies
	Summary
	References
10: Some Important Repertoires to Consider When Training Autism Interventionists
	Introduction
	Repertoires
		Understanding of Human Development and ASD
		Fun and Engaging
		Receptive to Feedback
		Systematic
		Adaptive/Flexible
		Analytic
		Objective
		Widely Competent
		Conceptually Sound
		Learner Progress as a Reinforcer
		Does Not Miss the Forest for the Trees
		Professional
	Training Considerations
	Conclusion
	References
11: Social Skills and Applied Behavior Analysis
	Introduction
	Conceptual Underpinnings
	Assessment and Goal Development
		Common Norm-Referenced Social Skills Assessments
	Environmentally Based Social Skills Assessments
	Selecting Goals
	Assent
	Age-Related Priorities
		Infants and Toddlers
		Preschool Age
		School Age
		Adolescents and Adults
	Teaching Social Skills in a Group Setting
		Locations & Sessions
		Variables to Consider
	Interventions for Teaching Social Skills
		Common Nonevidence-Based Interventions
			Social Stories
			Social Thinking
		Common Evidence-Based Interventions
			Behavioral Skills Training and Teaching Interaction Procedure
			Video Modeling
			Visual Learning Strategies
			Peer-Mediated
	Conclusion
	References
12: Rituals and Stereotypies
	What Are Stereotypies and Rituals?
	Why Do Children with Autism Engage in Stereotypies and Rituals?
	Developing Interventions for Stereotypy and Other Repetitive Behaviors
		Eliminating or Attenuating Consequences of Problem Behavior
		Developing Alternative Skill Repertoires
		Reinforcement for the Non-occurrence of Stereotypy
		Punishment
		Selecting Among Treatment Options
	Conclusions and Recommendations
	References
13: Transition-Related Problem Behavior
	Introduction
	The Development of Transition-Related Problem Behavior
	Proactive Strategies for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
		Modifications to the Physical Environment
		Increasing Security, Monitoring, and Awareness
	Assessment of Transition-Related Problem Behavior
		Functional Analysis of Transition-Related Problem Behavior
		Alternatives to Traditional Functional Analyses
		Safety Considerations
	Treatment of Transition-Related Problem Behavior
		Socially Reinforced Transition-Related Problem Behavior
			Advanced Warnings and Visual-Activity Schedules
			Noncontingent Reinforcement
			Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior and Alternative Behavior
			Functional Communication Training
			Treatment Selection and Considerations
		Automatically Reinforced Transition-Related Problem Behavior
		Teaching Safety Skills
	Conclusion
	References
14: Self-Injury
	Introduction
	Origin and Maintenance of SIB
	Pre-treatment Considerations for SIB
	Behavioral Assessment of SIB
		Indirect Assessment
		Descriptive Analysis
		Functional Analyses
	Behavioral Treatment
		Antecedent Interventions
		Increasing Appropriate Alternative Skills
		Consequence-Based Strategies
	Conclusion
	References
15: Aggression and Tantrums and Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
	Operant Interpretations of Aggression and Tantrums
	Informing Behavioral Treatment of Aggression and Tantrums
	Function-Based Treatment of Aggression and Tantrums
		General Treatment Strategies
		Treatment Extensions
		Comprehensive Function-Based Treatment Package
		Other Treatment Considerations
	Conclusions
	References
16: Noncompliance
	Introduction
	Functional Assessment
		Indirect Assessment
		Descriptive Assessment
		Functional Analysis
		Summary and Practice Recommendations for the Functional Assessment of Noncompliance
	Active Cooperation
		Antecedent Interventions
			High-Probability Instructional Sequence
			Noncontingent Reinforcement
			Reducing Response Effort
			Manipulating the Delivery of Instructions
		Consequent Interventions
			Guided Compliance
			Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
			Timeout
		Summary and Practice Recommendations for Active Cooperation
	Passive Cooperation
		Categories of Stimuli Associated with Passive Cooperation
			Feared Stimuli
			Medical and Dental Procedures
			Hygiene Routines
			Prolonged Tactile Contact
		Antecedent Interventions
			Exposure
			Noncontingent Reinforcement
		Consequent Interventions
			Differential Reinforcement of Other Behavior
			Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Behavior
			Response Blocking and Response Cost
			Escape Extinction
		Summary and Practice Recommendations for Passive Cooperation
	Conclusion
	References
17: Teaching Adaptive Skills to Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: From Assessment to Treatment
	Introduction
	Assessment
	Common Adaptive Behaviors for Instruction
		Self-Care Skills
		Domestic Skills
		Recreational Skills
		Community and Pre-vocational Skills
	Systematic Instruction
		Behavioral Skills Training (BST)
		Video Modeling, Video-Based Instruction, and Video Prompting
		Chaining Procedures
	Conclusion
	References
18: Toe Walking
	Introduction
	Measuring ITW
		Direct Measures
		Indirect Measures
	Medical Assessment of ITW
		Informant-Based Assessment
		Direct Assessment
		Experimental Assessments
	Medical Interventions for ITW
		Surgical Interventions
		Serial Casting
		Botulinum Toxin A
		Ankle Foot Orthoses (AFO)
		Watch and Wait
	Behavioral Assessment of ITW
	Behavioral Interventions for ITW
	Conclusions and Directions for Future Research
	References
19: Behavioral Assessment and Treatment of Feeding Problems in Autistic Children
	Introduction
	Interdisciplinary Approach
	Behavioral Assessment
		Descriptive Analysis of Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior
		Functional Analysis of Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior
		Antecedent Assessments
	Behavioral Treatment
		Increasing Acceptance and Decreasing Inappropriate Mealtime Behavior
		Antecedent-Based Procedures
		Expulsion
		Packing
		Increasing Chewing
		Increasing Self-Feeding
		Alternative Approaches to Treatment
	Ethical Considerations
	Summary
	References
20: ADHD, Distractibility, and ABA
	Introduction
	ADHD
		Diagnostic Criteria
		Prevalence/Etiology
		Longitudinal Trajectories
		Theoretical Model
		Comorbidities
	ASD
		Diagnostic Criteria
		Prevalence/Etiology
		Longitudinal Trajectories
		Comorbidities
	Comorbidity of ASD and ADHD
		Theories of Comorbidity
		ASD+ADHD Presentation
			Mental Health and Executive Functioning
			Behavioral
			Social
	Assessment/Differential Diagnosis
		ADHD Assessment
		ASD Assessment
		Discriminant Validity
	ADHD and ASD+ADHD Treatment
		Medication
		Behavioral Parent Training
		Social Skills
		Applied Behavior Analysis
		Other Treatment Considerations
	Future Directions
		Integrated Primary Care
		School-Based Interventions
		Technology in Assessment/Treatment
		ADHD and ASD in Females
	Conclusion
	References
21: Generalization and Maintenance
	What Is Generalization and Maintenance?
		Stimulus Control and Discrimination
		Generalization
			Stimulus Generalization
			Response Generalization
			Response Maintenance
	Generalization and ASD
		Stimulus Overselectivity
	Current Practices
		Strategies to Promote Generalization
			Generalization as Learning to Learn
				Recombinative Generalization
				Stimulus Equivalence
				Generalization Across Subjects
			Generalization, the Technology
				Sequential Modification
				Introduce to Natural Maintaining Contingencies
				Train Sufficient Exemplars
				Train Loosely
				Use Indiscriminable Contingencies
				Program Common Stimuli
				Mediate Generalization
				Train to Generalize
	Planning for Generalized Outcomes
		Case Example
			Client Information
			Referral Question
			Behavior Assessment
			Intervention
			Planning for Generalization
			Results
	Concluding Summary and Recommendations
	References
22: Parent Training Interventions to Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
	Introduction
	Parents Raising Concerns and Screening for ASD
	Parent Involvement in the Evaluation Process
	History and Theoretical Foundations of Parenting Programs
	Sleep Issues
	Communication
	Feeding
	Safety
	Social Skills
	Daily Living Skills
	Specific Training in ABA Skills Procedures and Tools
	Telehealth
	Barriers to Parent Training
	References
Index