Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages: Technical, Analytical and Nutritional Aspects

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page: Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages, Volume I......Page 3
Title Page: Handbook of Alcoholic Beverages, Volume II......Page 4
ISBN 9780470512029......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
List of Contributors......Page 15
General Acknowledgments and Thanks......Page 16
Part 1 Introduction, Background and History......Page 18
1.1 Alcoholic Beverages of the World: An Introduction to the Contents of This Book......Page 20
1.2.1 The Beginnings (From the earliest Times to ca. 1100 AD)......Page 29
1.2.2 Medieval Times and Beyond (ca. 1100–1750)......Page 35
1.2.3 The Industrial Revolution and the Influences of Science and Technology (ca. 1750–1900)......Page 41
1.2.4 Modern Times and Newer Processes (ca. 1900–Present Day)......Page 45
1.2.5 The Development of Analytical Methods......Page 52
References......Page 57
1.3.2 Big is Beautiful: Multinational Companies and the Globalization of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 59
1.3.3 Small is Beautiful: The Growth in Microbreweries and Craft Breweries and the Localization of Products......Page 61
1.3.4 Revival of Traditional Beer Styles......Page 62
1.3.5 Changes in Beer Drinking Habits......Page 64
1.3.6 Global Growth in Wine Drinking......Page 65
1.3.7 Development of New Wine Industries......Page 67
1.3.9 The Rise of Flavored Alcoholic Beverages (‘Alcopops’)......Page 69
1.3.10 Calorie-Counting and Health Perception of Alcoholic Drinks......Page 70
1.3.11 Binge Drinking......Page 71
1.3.12 Organic and Biodynamic Production of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 73
1.3.13 Use of Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and Microorganisms......Page 74
References......Page 76
Part 2 Fermented Beverages: Beers, Ciders, Wines and Related Drinks......Page 80
2.1 Introduction: Overview of Fermentation and Microorganisms......Page 82
2.1.1 Yeasts......Page 84
2.1.3 Molds and Spoilage Organisms......Page 86
References......Page 87
2.2.2 Physiology and Morphology of Yeast......Page 89
2.2.3 Nutritional Requirements of Yeast......Page 90
2.2.4 The Use of Naturally Occurring (‘Wild’) Yeasts in Fermentations......Page 92
2.2.6 The Use of Selected (Cultured) Yeast Strains......Page 93
2.2.8 The Growth of a Yeast Population......Page 94
2.2.9 An Overview of Alcoholic Fermentation......Page 97
2.2.10 Flocculation......Page 104
2.2.11 Aroma Compounds and Fermentation......Page 105
References......Page 110
2.3.1 Introduction......Page 113
2.3.2 Malolactic Bacteria: Morphology and Physiology......Page 114
2.3.4 Factors Affecting the Growth of Malolactic Bacteria......Page 115
2.3.5 Interactions Between Bacteria and Other Organisms......Page 117
2.3.7 Inoculation with MLB Starter Culture......Page 118
2.3.8 The Growth of Bacterial Populations......Page 119
2.3.9 The Malolactic Fermentation Process......Page 120
2.3.11 Microbial Stability......Page 121
2.3.13 Finishing and/or Preventing Malolactic Fermentation......Page 122
2.3.15 Other Effects of MLF......Page 123
2.3.16 Malolactic Fermentation and Aroma......Page 124
2.3.17 Lactic Spoilage......Page 128
References......Page 129
2.4.1 Introduction......Page 131
2.4.2 Acetic Acid Bacteria......Page 132
2.4.4 The Activities of Yeasts other than Saccharomyces......Page 134
2.4.5 Film Forming Yeasts......Page 136
2.4.7 Prevention of Spoilage......Page 137
References......Page 138
2.5.2 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)......Page 140
2.5.3 The Roles of SO2......Page 142
2.5.4 Sorbic Acid......Page 145
2.5.6 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)......Page 146
2.5.8 Other Preservatives......Page 147
References......Page 148
2.6.1 The Basic Brewing Processes......Page 149
2.6.2 Malting and Mashing......Page 151
2.6.3 Boiling the Wort......Page 165
2.6.4 Fermentation......Page 174
2.6.5 Top Fermentation......Page 180
2.6.6 Bottom Fermentation......Page 184
2.6.7 Other Fermentations......Page 186
2.6.8 Modern Methods of Fermentation......Page 188
2.6.9 Beer Treatment: Fining, Filtration and Pasteurization......Page 190
2.6.10 Packaging of Beer: Casking, Kegging, Bottling and Canning......Page 199
2.6.11 Dispensing of Draught Beers......Page 203
2.6.12 Oxidation and the Staling of Beer......Page 209
2.6.13 Beer styles......Page 213
References......Page 224
2.7 Cereal-based and Other Fermented Drinks of Asia, Africa and Central/South America......Page 228
2.7.1 The Rice ‘Wines’ of Asia......Page 229
2.7.2 Native Fermented Drinks of Africa and South America......Page 239
References......Page 246
2.8.1 Introduction......Page 248
2.8.2 The Basic Ingredients......Page 250
2.8.3 Harvesting, Crushing and Pressing......Page 255
2.8.4 Fermentation and Maturation......Page 258
2.8.5 Traditional and Small-Scale Cider and Perry Production: Fermentation and Beyond......Page 262
2.8.6 Large-Scale (Factory) Production of Cider and Perry: Fermentation and Beyond......Page 268
2.8.7 Newer Techniques, Recent Developments and Innovations......Page 271
2.8.8 Cider and Perry from Around the World......Page 274
References......Page 280
2.9 Wine......Page 283
2.9.1 White Winemaking......Page 284
2.9.2 Red Wine Production......Page 317
2.9.3 Sparkling Wines......Page 341
2.9.4 Fining, Filtration and Clarification......Page 360
2.9.5 Wine Maturation and Ageing......Page 371
2.9.6 Some Current Trends in Wine Production......Page 388
References......Page 394
2.10.1 Overview and Scope......Page 400
2.10.2 Sherry and Other Flor Wines......Page 401
2.10.3 Flor and Oxidation in Sherry Wines......Page 408
2.10.4 Other Flor Wines......Page 411
2.10.5 Madeira......Page 412
2.10.6 Estufagem and Cask Maturation of Madeira Wine......Page 414
2.10.7 Port......Page 416
2.10.8 Marsala and Málaga......Page 425
2.10.9 Vins Doux Naturels, Liqueur Muscat and Similar Wines......Page 426
2.10.10 Vins de Liqueurs and Similar Beverages......Page 431
References......Page 433
2.11.1 Overview and Scope......Page 436
2.11.2 Comparison of Fruit for Winemaking......Page 437
2.11.3 Making Fruit Wines......Page 440
2.11.4 Country Wine Styles......Page 446
2.11.5 Mead......Page 449
References......Page 451
2.12.1 Introduction and Brief History of Aromatization of Wine......Page 453
2.12.2 Vermouth......Page 454
2.12.3 Other Aromatized Wines and Apéritifs......Page 461
References......Page 462
2.13.1 Overview......Page 464
2.13.2 Production of Low Alcohol Beverages by Limited or Checked Alcohol Methods......Page 465
2.13.3 Dealcoholization Methods......Page 467
References......Page 470
Part 3 Distilled Spirits......Page 472
3.1.1 A Brief History and Theory of Distillation......Page 474
3.1.2 Batch Distillation......Page 478
3.1.3 Continuous Column Distillation......Page 483
References......Page 485
3.2.1 Introduction and Brief History......Page 486
3.2.2 The Raw Materials......Page 492
3.2.3 Malting, Mashing, Cooking and Fermentation......Page 496
3.2.4 Distillation......Page 504
3.2.5 Maturation, Blending and Other Postdistillation Processes......Page 508
3.2.6 The Flavor and Styles of Scotch Malt Whiskies......Page 515
References......Page 529
3.3.1 Scope......Page 532
3.3.2 Irish Whiskey......Page 533
3.3.3 The Whiskeys of America......Page 536
3.3.4 Bourbon and Tennessee Whiskey......Page 537
3.3.5 American Rye and Corn Whiskies......Page 544
3.3.6 Whiskies from Other Countries......Page 545
References......Page 550
3.4.2 Gin and Similar Juniper Flavored Spirits......Page 552
3.4.3 Akvavit (Aquavit) and Vodka......Page 558
3.4.4 Asian Grain Spirits......Page 560
References......Page 570
3.5.1 Overview and Scope......Page 572
3.5.2 History and Basic Description of Rum and Cachaça......Page 573
3.5.3 Fermentation and Distillation Practices in the Production of Cachaça and Rum......Page 577
3.5.4 Flavor Characteristics of Rum and Cachaça......Page 581
3.5.5 Arrack, Mezcal and Tequila......Page 583
3.5.6 Aniseed Flavored Spirits......Page 587
References......Page 589
3.6.1 Introduction and Brief History......Page 591
3.6.2 Cognac......Page 602
3.6.3 Armagnac......Page 605
3.6.4 Other Brandies......Page 606
3.6.6 Evaluating Brandy......Page 608
References......Page 610
3.7.1 Introduction......Page 612
3.7.2 Production of Pomace Spirits......Page 613
3.7.3 Types of Pomace Spirits and Sensory Characteristics......Page 615
References......Page 617
3.8.1 Introduction......Page 619
3.8.2 Apple and Pear Spirits......Page 620
3.8.3 Fruit Spirits of Central Europe......Page 625
3.8.4 Plum Spirits of Eastern Europe......Page 628
3.8.5 Other Fruit Spirits......Page 629
References......Page 630
3.9.1 Introduction and Scope......Page 632
3.9.2 Fruit and Fruit Flavored Liqueurs......Page 634
3.9.3 Flower, Herb, Spice and Bitter Liqueurs......Page 637
3.9.5 Nut and Emulsion Liqueurs......Page 641
3.9.6 Production and Use of Essences and Concentrates......Page 642
References......Page 643
Part 4 Analytical Methods......Page 646
4.1 Introduction......Page 648
4.1.1 Why Analyze Alcoholic Beverages? An Overview of the Need for Analysis......Page 649
4.1.2 Process Monitoring......Page 650
4.1.3 Identification of Origin, Determination of Authenticity and Detection of Fraud......Page 653
4.1.4 Determination and Characterization of Beverage Components and Processes......Page 656
4.1.5 Development of New Analytical Methods......Page 659
References......Page 662
4.2.1 Overview......Page 664
4.2.2 Liquid Extraction Techniques......Page 665
4.2.3 Distillation Methods......Page 676
4.2.4 Solid Phase Extraction and Related Methods (Sorption Techniques)......Page 681
4.2.5 Headspace Methods......Page 701
4.2.6 Combinations of Methods (With Particular Application to Enological Products)......Page 705
References......Page 707
4.3 Chromatographic Methods......Page 722
4.3.1 Thin Layer Chromatography and Related Methods......Page 723
4.3.2 Capillary Gas Chromatography......Page 726
4.3.3 Liquid Chromatography......Page 739
4.3.4 Counter Current Chromatographic Methods......Page 769
References......Page 772
4.4 Spectroscopic Methods......Page 782
4.4.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance......Page 784
4.4.2 Infrared Spectroscopy......Page 801
4.4.3 Colorimetry, UV-Visible Spectroscopy and Fluorometry......Page 810
4.4.4 Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectroscopy......Page 831
4.4.5 Mass Spectrometry......Page 842
References......Page 860
4.5 Electrochemical Methods......Page 872
4.5.1 Potentiometric Methods......Page 873
4.5.2 Voltammetric Methods......Page 880
4.5.3 Electrochemical Sensors......Page 886
References......Page 890
4.6.1 Electrophoretic Techniques......Page 894
4.6.2 Flow Injection Techniques......Page 906
4.6.3 Chemical and Physical Methods......Page 913
References......Page 924
4.7.1 Introduction......Page 930
4.7.2 Olfaction and Taste......Page 931
4.7.3 Odor Theshold, Odor Activity and Low Impact Odorants......Page 939
4.7.4 Sensory Tests......Page 942
References......Page 947
Part 5 Nutritional and Health Aspects......Page 950
5.1 General Introduction......Page 952
5.1.1 ‘Alcohol’ in Perspective......Page 953
5.1.2 The Extent and General Implications of Alcoholic Beverage Consumption......Page 955
5.1.3 Ingredients, Processing and the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 958
5.1.4 Nutritional Considerations......Page 960
References......Page 963
5.2 Factors Influencing the Nutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 966
5.2.1 Wines......Page 968
5.2.2 Beers......Page 969
5.2.4 Distilled Beverages......Page 972
5.2.5 Fortified wines......Page 974
5.2.7 Cocktails......Page 975
References......Page 976
5.3 Macronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 978
5.3.1 Water......Page 980
5.3.2 Alcohol......Page 983
5.3.3 Carbohydrates (Including Fiber)......Page 984
5.3.4 Nitrogenous Compounds: Proteins, Peptides, Amino Acids, Amines and Nucleotides......Page 987
5.3.5 Lipids......Page 989
References......Page 990
5.4 Micronutrient Content of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 992
5.4.1 Vitamins......Page 994
5.4.2 Electrolytes and Functional Elements (Minerals and Trace Elements)......Page 998
5.4.3 Phytochemicals......Page 1003
References......Page 1007
5.5 Alcohol Ingestion, Absorption and Catabolism: Metabolic and Nutritional Consequences......Page 1010
5.5.1 Alcohol Catabolism......Page 1011
5.5.3 Effects of Alcohol on Intake of Foods and Energy......Page 1014
5.5.4 Consequences for Intermediary Metabolism of Alcohol Catabolism......Page 1015
5.5.5 Effects of Alcohol and its Metabolites on Absorption, Metabolism and Utilization of Key Nutrients......Page 1017
References......Page 1018
5.6.1 Overview: Alcoholic Beverages and Society......Page 1020
5.6.2 Harmful Effects of Excessive Alcohol Intake......Page 1025
5.6.3 Possible Benefit of Low to Moderate Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages......Page 1037
References......Page 1039
5.7.1 Metabolizable Carbohydrate......Page 1047
5.7.2 Low Carbohydrate Beers......Page 1050
5.7.3 High Carbohydrate Beers......Page 1051
5.7.4 Nonmetabolizable Carbohydrate......Page 1052
References......Page 1054
5.8.1 Overview......Page 1055
5.8.3 Short Review of Oxygen in Cell Metabolic Processes......Page 1056
5.8.4 Incomplete Reduction of Oxygen, the Formation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Cell Damage......Page 1058
5.8.5 Natural Antioxidants in Food......Page 1060
5.8.6 Phenolic Substances in Alcoholic Beverages......Page 1061
5.8.7 Some Chemical Characteristics of Phenolic Compounds......Page 1062
5.8.8 Health Benefit and Antioxidant Potency of Alcoholic Beverages, their Phenolic Extracts and their Individual Phenolic Components......Page 1067
5.8.9 Mechanisms of In Vivo Health Benefit of Dietary Phenols: Antioxidants or Otherwise?......Page 1071
References......Page 1078
5.9.2 Sulfur Dioxide and Other Preservatives......Page 1082
5.9.3 Fining Agents and Adjuncts......Page 1085
5.9.4 Other Additives......Page 1086
5.9.5 Regulations and Legislation Relating to Additives......Page 1088
References......Page 1090
5.10.2 Pesticides......Page 1093
5.10.3 Metal and Nonmetal Residues......Page 1099
5.10.4 Industrial Contaminants......Page 1103
References......Page 1108
5.11.2 Phytochemicals......Page 1110
5.11.3 Nitrogenous Allergenic Substances......Page 1115
5.11.4 Mycotoxins......Page 1118
5.11.5 Other Trace Substances......Page 1121
References......Page 1124
Cubic Measure......Page 1128
Energy......Page 1129
Appendix 2......Page 1130
Approximate Relationships......Page 1131
Important Constants......Page 1132
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