Guide to Nutritional Supplements

COVER......Page 1
GUIDE TO NUTRITIONAL SUPPLEMENTS......Page 4
COPYRIGHT PAGE......Page 5
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 8
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 10
CONTENTS......Page 14
Amino acid Deficiencies and Supplementation......Page 18
Assessment of Amino Acid Function......Page 19
Alanine......Page 20
Arginine, Citrulline, Ornithine, and Proline (Figure 1)......Page 21
Cysteine, Cystine, Methionine, and Taurine (Figure 2)......Page 22
Glutamine, Glutamic acid, and Ornithine alpha-Ketoglutarate (Figure 3)......Page 23
Branched Chain Amino Acids (Isoleucine, Leucine, Valine)......Page 24
Phenylalanine and Tyrosine......Page 25
Tryptophan......Page 26
Iron Metabolism......Page 27
Iron Requirements......Page 29
Recommended Nutrient Intakes for Iron......Page 30
Indicators of Iron Deficiency and Anemia......Page 31
Prevalence of Iron Deficiency and Iron Deficiency Anemia......Page 32
Interventions: Prevention and Treatment of Iron Deficiency Anemia......Page 33
Further Reading......Page 35
Oxidant Stress......Page 36
Antioxidants Found Within the Human Body......Page 41
Dietary Antioxidants......Page 43
Summary and Concluding Remarks......Page 46
Intervention Studies......Page 48
Cardiovascular Disease......Page 49
Cancer......Page 50
Other Diseases Associated with Oxidative Damage......Page 54
Possible Explanations for the Disagreement between the Findings of Observational Studies and Clinical Trials......Page 55
Conclusion......Page 56
The Observational View of Dietary Antioxidants......Page 57
Vitamin C......Page 58
Vitamin E......Page 60
‘Non-Nutrient’ Antioxidants......Page 62
Summary and Research Needs......Page 63
Further Reading......Page 64
Metabolism and Excretion......Page 65
Metabolic Functions of Ascorbic Acid......Page 66
Assessment of Vitamin C Status......Page 68
Requirements......Page 69
Dietary Sources and High Intakes......Page 70
Further Reading......Page 71
Absorption and Transport......Page 72
Metabolic Functions......Page 74
Assessment of Biotin Status......Page 77
Dietary Sources, Deficiency, and High Intakes......Page 78
Further Reading......Page 80
Absorption, Distribution, and Elimination......Page 82
Physiological and Pharmacological Properties......Page 84
Further Reading......Page 88
Absorption and Transport......Page 89
Metabolism and Excretion......Page 90
Changes in Calcium Metabolism during the Life Span......Page 92
Dietary Sources......Page 93
Further Reading......Page 94
Dietary Sources and Intakes......Page 95
Health Effects of Carbohydrates......Page 96
Low-Carbohydrate Diets......Page 98
Requirements and Recommendations......Page 99
Relevant Websites......Page 100
Resistant Starch......Page 101
Oligosaccharides......Page 105
Resistant Starch, Oligosaccharides, or Just Dietary Fiber?......Page 107
Further Reading......Page 108
Chemistry......Page 109
Reactions......Page 111
Dietary Sources......Page 113
Physiology......Page 114
Distribution and Impact on Health......Page 116
Further Reading......Page 117
Introduction......Page 118
Hydrocarbon Carotenoid: beta-Carotene......Page 120
Hydrocarbon Carotenoid: alpha-Carotene......Page 121
Hydrocarbon Carotenoid: Lycopene......Page 122
Summary......Page 123
Further Reading......Page 124
Choline in Foods......Page 125
Functional Effects of Varying Choline in the Diet......Page 126
Further Reading......Page 128
Copper Homeostasis......Page 129
Recommended Intakes......Page 130
Absorption and Excretion......Page 131
Copper Deficiency......Page 132
Conclusion......Page 133
Introduction......Page 134
Cholesterol and Cholesterolemia......Page 137
Further Reading......Page 139
Global Trends in CHD as a Reflection of Nutrition Transition......Page 140
Nutrients and CHD......Page 141
Food Items......Page 143
Composite Diets and CHD......Page 144
Prevention Pathways......Page 145
Further Reading......Page 146
Introduction......Page 148
Fiber in the Digestive Tract......Page 149
Conclusion......Page 153
Potential Role in Etiology of Disease......Page 154
Dietary Fiber, Complex Carbohydrates, and Health Outcomes: A Need for Fiber Equivalents?......Page 155
Dietary Fiber and the Etiology of Coronary Heart Disease......Page 156
Dietary Fiber and the Etiology of Cancers—Colon and Rectum......Page 157
Dietary Fiber and the Etiology of Hormone-Dependent Cancers......Page 159
Dietary Fiber, Obesity, and the Etiology of Diabetes......Page 160
Further Reading......Page 161
Hyperlipidemia......Page 162
Diabetes......Page 163
Bowel Disorders......Page 164
Relevant Websites......Page 166
Physical Properties of Fatty Acids......Page 168
Mitochondrial Fatty-Acid beta-Oxidation......Page 170
Peroxisomal Fatty-Acid beta-Oxidation......Page 171
Fatty-Acid alpha-Oxidation omega-Oxidation......Page 172
Fatty-Acid de novo Synthesis......Page 173
Fatty-Acid Elongation......Page 175
Fatty-Acid Unsaturation and the Essential Fatty Acids......Page 176
Fatty Acids as Components of Complex Lipids......Page 177
Fatty Acylation of Proteins......Page 178
Further Reading......Page 179
Cholesterol Metabolism......Page 180
Atherogenesis and Endothelial Dysfunction......Page 181
Thrombosis and Fibrinolysis......Page 182
Inflammation and Oxidative Damage......Page 184
Carcinogenesis......Page 185
Introduction......Page 186
n-6 and n-3 Fatty Acids: Sources, Desaturation and Elongation......Page 187
Evolutionary Aspects of Diet Relative to n-3 Fatty Acids and the n-6:n-3 Balance......Page 189
Eicosanoid Metabolism and Biological Effects of n-6 and n-3 Fatty Acids......Page 190
Nutrigenetics: Interaction between the n-6:n-3 Fatty Acids and the Genome......Page 191
Effects of Dietary ALA Compared with Long-Chain n-3 Fatty Acid Derivatives on Physiologic Indexes......Page 193
Human Studies in Growth and Development......Page 195
Coronary Heart Disease......Page 197
Inflammation: a Common Base for the Development of Coronary Heart Disease, Diabetes, Arthritis, Mental Health, Neurodegenerative Diseases and Cancer......Page 198
Future Work, Conclusions, and Recommendations......Page 199
Further Reading......Page 200
Structure, Function, and Nutritional Requirements......Page 201
Endothelial Function, Atherosclerosis, and Cardiovascular Disease......Page 202
n-6 Fatty Acids and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease......Page 203
Conclusions......Page 205
Saturated......Page 206
Cholesterol Metabolism......Page 207
Platelet Aggregation......Page 208
Coagulation and Fibrinolysis......Page 209
Chemistry......Page 211
Analysis......Page 212
Sources and Intakes......Page 213
Physiology of trans Fatty Acids......Page 214
The Role of trans Fatty Acids in Coronary Heart Disease......Page 216
Dietary Guidelines......Page 217
Further Reading......Page 218
General Characteristics of Finfish......Page 219
Nutritional Value of Fish and Shellfish: Introductory Remarks......Page 220
Fish Lipids......Page 221
Fish Proteins......Page 223
Nonprotein Nitrogen Compounds in Fish......Page 224
Fish Minerals......Page 225
Introduction......Page 228
Physiology and Biochemistry......Page 229
Human Folate Requirements......Page 232
Further Reading......Page 235
History......Page 236
Edible Plants and Phytochemicals......Page 238
Immune Modulators......Page 240
Designer Foods......Page 241
Further Reading......Page 242
History......Page 244
Iodine Deficiency Disorders......Page 245
Correction of Iodine Deficiency......Page 248
Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders at the Country Level......Page 249
The Global Partnership......Page 250
Further Reading......Page 251
Absorption, Transport, and Storage......Page 252
Metabolic Functions......Page 254
Iodine Deficiency and Excess......Page 255
Requirements and Dietary Sources......Page 258
Further Reading......Page 259
Chemical and Physical Properties of Lycopene; its Food Sources and Enteral Absorption......Page 260
Functional Properties and Tissue Health......Page 263
Health, Research Models and Epidemiological Evidence......Page 264
Further Reading......Page 266
Magnesium Metabolism......Page 268
Dietary Sources of Magnesium......Page 269
Magnesium Deficit......Page 270
Recommended Dietary Allowances......Page 271
Further Reading......Page 272
Dietary Sources......Page 273
Physiological Role......Page 274
Manganese Deficiency......Page 277
Manganese Toxicity......Page 278
Further Reading......Page 280
Intestinal Microflora......Page 281
Probiotic Effects......Page 284
Safety......Page 286
Further Reading......Page 287
Absorption, Transport, and Storage......Page 290
Metabolism and Excretion......Page 291
Metabolic Function and Essentiality......Page 293
Requirements and Signs of Deficiency......Page 294
Dietary Sources, High Intakes, and Antimetabolites......Page 295
Further Reading......Page 296
Absorption, Transport and Storage, Status Measurement......Page 298
Metabolism and Turnover......Page 299
Metabolic Function and Essentiality......Page 300
Requirements......Page 301
Dietary Sources and High Intakes......Page 302
Dietary Sources of Phosphorus......Page 303
Phosphate Homeostatic Mechanisms......Page 304
Phosphate in Health and Disease......Page 305
Conclusions......Page 306
Classification and Occurrence......Page 307
Flavonoids......Page 308
Current Estimates of Intake......Page 310
Potential Mechanisms of Action......Page 311
Potential Health Effects......Page 312
Further Reading......Page 313
Epidemiological Sources of Evidence Indicating Potential Health Benefits of Phytochemicals......Page 314
Potential Importance of Flavonoids to Human Health: Molecular Mechanisms of Action......Page 318
Potential Importance of Phytoestrogens to Human Health: Molecular Mechanisms of Action......Page 320
Potential Importance of Glucosinolate Derivatives and Related Compounds to Human Health: Molecular Mechanisms of Action......Page 322
Potential Importance of Other Phytochemicals to Human Health: Molecular Mechanisms of Action......Page 323
Further Reading......Page 325
Adverse Effects of Insufficient Potassium......Page 326
Recommended Potassium Intake, Current Intake, and Dietary Sources......Page 328
Further Reading......Page 329
Absorption, Transport, and Storage......Page 330
Metabolism and Excretion......Page 332
Malaria......Page 334
Assessment of Riboflavin Status......Page 335
Requirements......Page 337
Further Reading......Page 338
Dietary Selenium, Absorption, and Mechanisms of Incorporation of Selenium into Selenoproteins......Page 340
Selenium Deficiency, Viral Disease and Mutation, and Immune Function......Page 342
Selenium Distribution, Status Assays, and Dietary Reference Values......Page 344
Selenium Interventions......Page 345
Conclusion......Page 346
Physiological, Clinical, and Nutritional Importance of Sodium......Page 347
Extracellular Sodium......Page 348
Regulation of ECF Sodium......Page 349
Adequate, Inadequate, and Excess Sodium......Page 350
Further Reading......Page 351
A History of Salt Intake......Page 352
Salt in Food Technology......Page 353
Salt and Disease......Page 354
Estimating Salt Intakes......Page 361
Implications of the Salt-Disease Relationships in Relation to Population and Individual Strategies for Improving Health......Page 362
Conclusions......Page 363
Introduction......Page 364
Influence of Exercise Training on Energy Balance......Page 365
Macronutrient Demands......Page 366
Water and Electrolyte Balance......Page 368
Dietary Supplements......Page 369
Developed Countries......Page 370
Research Approach for Determining the Health Impact of Micronutrient Supplements......Page 371
Evidence Supporting Recommendations for Micronutrient Supplement Use......Page 373
Further Reading......Page 377
Vitamin A Supplementation......Page 378
Iron/Folate Supplementation......Page 380
Multiple Micronutrient Supplementation......Page 381
Further Reading......Page 383
What Is a Dietary Supplement? How Are They Regulated in Different Countries?......Page 384
Product Quality and Safety Issues......Page 386
Label Claims......Page 387
Potential Benefits of Dietary Supplements......Page 388
Definition of Micronutrient Supplementation......Page 389
Cost of Micronutrient Interventions......Page 390
Vitamin A Supplementation......Page 391
Iron Supplementation......Page 392
Zinc Supplementation......Page 395
Further Reading......Page 396
Epidemiology......Page 398
Etiology......Page 400
Experimental Thiamin Deficiency in Man and Measurement of Thiamin Status......Page 401
Clinical Features of Beriberi......Page 402
Management/Treatment......Page 404
Lipid-Soluble Thiamin Derivatives......Page 405
Further Reading......Page 406
Dietary Sources of Thiamin......Page 407
Biological Functions......Page 409
Assessment of Thiamin Status......Page 411
Toxicity......Page 412
Further Reading......Page 413
Definition......Page 414
Metabolism and Excretion......Page 415
Requirements and High Intakes......Page 420
Further Reading......Page 426
Vegetarian Eating Patterns......Page 428
Nutritional Adequacy......Page 429
Conclusions......Page 432
Further Reading......Page 433
Vitamin A Status......Page 434
Binding Proteins......Page 435
Vitamin A and the Visual Cycle......Page 437
Vitamin A Homeostasis and Activation into atRA......Page 438
atRA Catabolism......Page 440
Physiological Functions of atRA......Page 441
Deficiency and Interventions......Page 442
Vitamin A Deficiency Disorders......Page 443
Epidemiology......Page 446
Impact of Interventions......Page 449
Management......Page 452
Further Reading......Page 453
Chemistry......Page 454
Dietary Sources and Nutritional Equivalency......Page 455
Transport and Metabolism......Page 456
Intestinal Metabolism......Page 457
Plasma Concentrations......Page 458
Physiological Actions......Page 459
Cell Morphology and Differentiation......Page 460
Recommended Dietary Allowances and Tolerable Upper Intake Levels for Vitamin A......Page 461
Further Reading......Page 463
Absorption and Metabolism......Page 464
Metabolic Functions of Vitamin B6......Page 465
Assessment of Vitamin B6 Nutritional Status......Page 468
Requirements and Reference Intakes......Page 469
Pharmacological Uses and Toxicity of Vitamin B6 Supplements......Page 470
Vitamin B6 Deficiency......Page 471
Further Reading......Page 472
Origin and Structure of Vitamin D......Page 473
Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion of Vitamin D......Page 474
Biologic Functions of Vitamin D on Calcium Metabolism......Page 475
Evaluation for and Consequences of Vitamin D Deficiency......Page 478
Recommended Dietary Intake of Vitamin D......Page 479
Further Reading......Page 482
Dietary Vitamin D Intakes and Low Vitamin D Status in the US......Page 483
Primary Causes and Abnormalities of Rickets and Osteomalacia......Page 484
Life Cycle Changes in Vitamin D Production and Metabolism......Page 485
Summary......Page 486
Further Reading......Page 487
General Description and Scientific Name......Page 488
Recommended Intake Levels......Page 490
Vitamin E Bioavailability......Page 492
Further Reading......Page 493
Chemistry......Page 494
Absorption Metabolism and Excretion......Page 495
Vitamin E Deficiency......Page 498
Tocopherols and Other Metabolic Functions......Page 499
Tocopherols and Cardiovascular Disease—Epidemiological Evidence......Page 500
Tocopherols and Other Diseases—Epidemiological Evidence......Page 501
Vitamin E Status and Requirements......Page 502
VITAMIN K......Page 503
Food Sources, Absorption, Distribution, and Turnover......Page 504
Physiological Functions of Vitamin K: Interaction with Antagonists......Page 505
Population Groups at Risk of Vitamin K Deficiency......Page 508
Status, Requirements, and Recommended Intakes......Page 509
Further Reading......Page 510
What are Whole Grains?......Page 512
Consumption of Whole Grains......Page 513
Whole Grains and Health......Page 514
Dietary Recommendations......Page 519
Further Reading......Page 520
Recognition of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries......Page 522
Causes of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries......Page 523
Prevalence of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries: Available Evidence......Page 524
Consequences of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries: Evidence Derived from Zinc Supplementation Trials......Page 525
Control of Zinc Deficiency in Developing Countries......Page 528
The History of Zinc as a Nutrient......Page 530
Control of Zinc Homeostasis......Page 531
Zinc Biochemistry......Page 532
Zinc Physiology......Page 534
Human Zinc Deficiency......Page 535
Recommended Intakes......Page 536
Further Reading......Page 537
INDEX......Page 538