Growing Crops with Reclaimed Wastewater

Contents......Page 6
Preface......Page 12
Water resources......Page 14
Development of sustainable water management policies......Page 15
Community education......Page 16
National guidelines for water recycling......Page 17
References......Page 18
Municipal wastewater management......Page 19
Background to reuse (1880s to 1990s)......Page 20
Environmental drivers......Page 21
Bolivar WWTP (The Virginia Pipeline Scheme)......Page 22
Christies Beach WWTP (The Willunga Basin Scheme)......Page 24
Bolivar Reclaimed Water ASR project......Page 25
Summary......Page 26
References......Page 27
Changing environmental and health standards and guidelines......Page 28
Future of reclaimed water use in Victoria......Page 29
Black Rock Sewerage Treatment Plant, Bellarine Peninsula......Page 30
Summary......Page 31
References......Page 32
Reclaimed water use in New South Wales......Page 33
Shoalhaven Regional Effluent Management Scheme......Page 34
Armidale......Page 35
Emu Plains Correctional Centre Dairy......Page 36
References......Page 37
Regulation......Page 38
Toowoomba......Page 39
Amenity horticulture......Page 40
References......Page 41
Reclaimed water use in Western Australia......Page 42
Barriers for reclamation and reuse......Page 43
Future developments in reuse......Page 44
Summary......Page 45
References......Page 46
Councils......Page 47
Regulation and management of wastewater reuse in Tasmania......Page 48
Future developments in reuse......Page 49
References......Page 50
Victoria’s regulatory framework......Page 52
Queensland’s regulatory framework......Page 53
California’s regulatory framework......Page 54
Microbiological water quality and horticultural uses......Page 55
United States and Californian guidelines......Page 56
Israeli guidelines......Page 57
Comparison of criteria......Page 58
Managing nutrients......Page 62
Managing nutrients in Australia......Page 63
Phosphorus trigger values......Page 65
Managing salinity and sodicity in Australia......Page 66
Sodicity assessment......Page 67
Israeli guidelines......Page 68
Managing metal contaminants from an international perspective......Page 69
Managing organic contaminants......Page 71
Summary......Page 72
References......Page 73
Wastewater composition and characteristics......Page 76
Need for treatment of wastewater......Page 77
Reclaimed water guidelines......Page 78
Secondary processes......Page 79
Activated sludge......Page 81
Nitrogen and phosphorus removal......Page 82
Sludge treatment, disposal and reuse......Page 83
Process trains for reclamation of wastewater......Page 84
Typical effluent quality achieved in process trains......Page 85
Evaluation and selection of process trains......Page 86
Bolivar, South Australia......Page 87
Hervey Bay, Queensland......Page 88
Mt Barker, South Australia......Page 89
Physical parameters......Page 90
Conclusions......Page 91
References......Page 92
Water use in Australian agriculture and horticulture......Page 94
Reclaimed water use in Australia......Page 95
Reclaimed water use in Australian agriculture and horticulture......Page 97
Agricultural and horticultural water use in the context of value of production......Page 99
Assessing suitability for reclaimed water use in horticulture......Page 100
Conclusion......Page 101
References......Page 103
5 Crop nutrition considerations in reclaimed water irrigation systems......Page 104
Water use and loadings......Page 105
Nutrient management......Page 106
Nutrient uptake, and crop yield and quality......Page 109
Nitrogen in soils and reclaimed waters......Page 110
Nitrogen and crop management......Page 112
Phosphorus in soils and reclaimed waters......Page 113
Summary......Page 115
References......Page 116
Crop water requirement......Page 120
Determination of evapotranspiration......Page 121
Water quality......Page 122
Water quality for drip irrigation......Page 123
Irrigation methods......Page 124
Furrow irrigation design and management......Page 125
Distribution uniformity with sprinkler irrigation......Page 126
The principles of drip irrigation......Page 127
Advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation......Page 128
Seed germination and rooting depth......Page 130
Irrigation scheduling with drip irrigation......Page 131
Matching crops, soils, reclaimed water quality and irrigation methods......Page 132
Deep percolation......Page 133
Conclusions......Page 134
References......Page 135
Recommended reading......Page 136
Salt accumulation in the landscape......Page 138
Salinity induced by a shallow watertable (seepage salinity)......Page 139
Transient salinity in sodic subsoils......Page 140
Osmotic effect on subsoil water availability......Page 141
Soil sodicity......Page 142
Classification of salt-affected soils......Page 144
Dispersive potential......Page 145
Yield decline in sodic soils......Page 146
Irrigating with reclaimed water......Page 148
References......Page 150
8 Managing risks to soil and plant health from key metals and metalloids in irrigation waters......Page 152
Contaminant concentrations in reclaimed water......Page 153
Cadmium......Page 155
Conclusion......Page 157
References......Page 159
The manifold effects of salinity......Page 160
Cation imbalances......Page 161
Chloride toxicity......Page 162
Anionic imbalances......Page 163
Salinity tolerance of horticultural crops......Page 164
Boron......Page 165
References......Page 169
Organics in reclaimed water......Page 172
Disinfection by-products......Page 173
N-Nitrosodimethylamine......Page 174
Phthalates......Page 175
Hormones......Page 176
Persistence and mobility......Page 177
Uptake by plants......Page 178
Effects of organic compound in reclaimed water on human health......Page 179
References......Page 180
Introduction......Page 184
Irrigation management......Page 185
Nitrate......Page 186
Sodium and potassium......Page 188
Heavy metals and metalloids......Page 189
Environmental flows......Page 190
References......Page 191
Pathogens......Page 194
Onsite controls......Page 195
Microbial risk assessment......Page 196
Cyanobacteria......Page 197
Pesticides and other organic chemicals......Page 198
Conclusions......Page 199
References......Page 200
13 Social psychological considerations in the acceptance of reclaimed water for horticultural irrigation......Page 202
The role of trust and knowledge......Page 204
The potential for formal attitudinal modelling......Page 205
Addendum......Page 207
References......Page 208
Abbreviations......Page 210
Organic materials and constants relating to their use......Page 211
Index......Page 212