Groundwater hydrology: engineering, planning, and management

Cover......Page 1
Half Title......Page 2
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Table of Contents......Page 8
Preface......Page 22
Acknowledgments......Page 26
Authors......Page 28
 1.1 Introduction......Page 30
 1.2 Water Availability......Page 31
  1.2.1 Groundwater Availability......Page 33
 1.3 Groundwater Systems......Page 34
 1.4 Science and Engineering of Groundwater......Page 35
 1.5 Planning and Management of Groundwater......Page 37
  1.5.2 Conflict Issues in Groundwater......Page 39
  1.5.3 Economics of Water......Page 40
  1.5.4 Groundwater Sustainability......Page 42
  1.5.5 Supply and Demand Side Management......Page 44
 1.6 Tools and Techniques......Page 46
 1.7 People’s Perception: Public Awareness......Page 48
 1.8 Groundwater Protection: Concerns and Acts......Page 49
  1.8.2 Groundwater Protection......Page 50
  1.8.3 USEPA Groundwater Rule......Page 51
  1.8.4 California’s Sustainable Groundwater Management Act......Page 52
 1.9 Overall Organization of This Book......Page 53
 References......Page 54
 2.1 Introduction......Page 58
 2.2 Vertical Distribution of Subsurface Water......Page 60
  2.4.1 Unconfined Aquifer......Page 62
  2.4.3 Aquitard (Leaky) Aquifer......Page 63
 2.5 Groundwater Balance......Page 64
  2.5.1 Water Balance in Confined Aquifers......Page 65
  2.5.3 Water Balance in Unsaturated Zone......Page 66
  2.6.2 Effective Stress......Page 67
  2.6.3 Compressibility of a Porous Medium......Page 69
 2.7 Aquifer Compressibility......Page 71
 2.8 Aquifer Characteristics......Page 72
  2.8.1 Porosity and Void Ratio......Page 73
  2.8.2 Specific Yield in Unconfined Aquifers......Page 75
  2.8.3 Specific Retention......Page 76
  2.8.4 Storage Coefficient and Specific Storage......Page 77
 2.9 Storage in the Unsaturated Zone......Page 81
  2.11.1 Karst Aquifer......Page 84
  2.11.3 Fluctuation of Karst Aquifer......Page 85
  2.11.4 Recharge of Karst Aquifer......Page 86
  2.11.6 Water Resources Problems in Karst......Page 87
 Problems......Page 88
 References......Page 90
  3.2.1 Darcy’s Law......Page 92
  3.2.2 Hydraulic Head......Page 97
   3.2.3.1 Hydraulic Conductivity in Saturated Media......Page 98
   3.2.3.2 Hydraulic Conductivity in Unsaturated Media......Page 99
   3.2.3.3 Laboratory Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 101
   3.2.3.4 Field Measurement of Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 103
 3.3 Homogeneous and Isotropic Systems......Page 104
  3.3.1 Hydraulic Conductivity in Multilayer Structures......Page 105
 3.4 Transmissivity......Page 109
 3.5 Dupuit–Forchheimer Theory of Free-Surface Flow......Page 110
 3.6 Groundwater Flow in Unsaturated Zone......Page 112
  3.7.1 Isotropic and Homogeneous Media......Page 117
  3.7.2 Heterogeneous Media......Page 121
  3.7.3 Anisotropic Media......Page 122
  3.8.1 Normal Distribution......Page 124
  3.8.2 Lognormal Distribution......Page 126
  3.8.3 t-Distribution......Page 127
   3.8.5.2 Standard Errors......Page 129
  3.8.6 Estimating Quantiles (Percentiles)......Page 130
  3.8.7 Probability/Frequency/Recurrence Interval......Page 131
  3.9.1 Nonstationary Hydrologic Variables......Page 132
  3.9.2 Hydrologic Time Series Modeling......Page 133
  3.9.3 Data Preparation......Page 134
   3.9.4.1 Method of Moments......Page 137
   3.9.4.2 Method of L-Moments......Page 138
   3.9.4.3 Method of Least Squares......Page 139
   3.9.4.4 Method of Maximum Likelihood......Page 140
   3.9.5.1 Chi-Square Goodness of Fit Test......Page 142
   3.9.5.2 Tests of Normality......Page 144
  3.9.7 Autoregressive Modeling......Page 146
  3.9.8 Moving Average Process......Page 150
   3.9.9.1 Generation and Forecasting Using ARMA Models......Page 151
  3.9.10 Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average Modeling......Page 152
   3.9.10.1 Time Series Forecasting Using ARIMA Models......Page 153
 Problems......Page 159
 Appendix......Page 161
 References......Page 164
 4.2 Continuity Equation......Page 168
 4.3 Equation of Motion in Groundwater......Page 171
  4.3.1 Groundwater Flow Equation......Page 173
 4.4 Wells......Page 182
   4.4.1.1 Confined Flow......Page 184
   4.4.1.2 Unconfined Flow......Page 187
  4.4.2 Unsteady State in a Confined Aquifer......Page 190
   4.4.2.1 Aquifer Test Application......Page 194
   4.4.2.2 Theis Method of Solution......Page 195
   4.4.2.3 Cooper–Jacob Method of Solution......Page 197
   4.4.2.4 Variable Pumping Test......Page 201
  4.4.3 Unsteady State for Unconfined Aquifer......Page 204
  4.5 Multiple-well Systems......Page 210
   4.6.1 Recharge Boundary......Page 211
   4.6.2 Impermeable Boundary......Page 213
   4.6.3 Partially Penetrating Wells......Page 215
  4.7 Design of Wells......Page 217
   4.8.2 Rotary Drilling Method......Page 220
    4.8.2.1 Well Development......Page 221
  Problems......Page 222
  References......Page 226
  5.2.1 Inorganic Contaminants......Page 228
  5.2.3 Dissolved Gasses......Page 229
  5.2.4 Particles......Page 231
 5.3 Water Quality Standards......Page 232
 5.4 Groundwater Solubility......Page 238
 5.5 Disequilibrium and Saturation Index......Page 241
  5.6.2 Underground Petroleum Tank Leakage......Page 243
  5.6.4 Sewage Disposal on Land......Page 244
  5.6.6 Other Sources of Contamination......Page 245
 5.7 Mass Transport of Dissolved Contaminants......Page 246
  5.7.1 Diffusion......Page 247
  5.7.2 Advection......Page 249
  5.7.3 Mechanical Dispersion......Page 250
  5.7.4 Hydrodynamic Dispersion......Page 253
  5.7.5 Derivation of the Advection–Dispersion Equation......Page 254
  5.7.6 Solute Transport Equation......Page 262
  5.7.7 Capture-Zone Curves......Page 263
   5.8.1.1 Fourier Analysis in Solute Transport......Page 269
   5.8.1.3 Vertically Mixed Spill Model......Page 270
   5.8.1.4 Vertical Mixing Region......Page 271
   5.8.2.2 Simple Plume Model......Page 273
   5.8.2.4 Gaussian-Source Plume Model......Page 274
 Problems......Page 277
 References......Page 279
 6.2 Process of Modeling......Page 280
 6.3 Mathematical Modeling......Page 281
  6.3.1 Analytical Modeling......Page 282
 6.4 Finite-Difference Method......Page 283
  6.4.1 Forward Difference Equation......Page 286
  6.4.2 Backward Difference Equation......Page 290
  6.4.3 Alternating Direction Implicit Method......Page 291
  6.4.4 Crank–Nicolson Difference Equation......Page 310
  6.5.1 Discretize the Problem Domain......Page 313
  6.5.2 Derive the Approximating Equations......Page 319
  6.5.3 Transient Saturated Flow Equation......Page 332
  6.5.4 Solute Transport Equation......Page 340
  6.6.1 Steady-State One-Dimensional Flow Equation......Page 348
  6.6.2 Unsteady-State, One-Dimensional Flow Equation......Page 352
  6.6.3 Two-Dimensional Flow Equation......Page 353
  6.6.4 Orthogonals Coordinate System......Page 362
 6.7 Simulation of Groundwater Flow Using the Discrete Kernel Approach......Page 365
 6.8 Saturated-Unsaturated Transport (SUTRA) Code......Page 375
 6.9 MODFLOW......Page 376
 Problems......Page 393
 References......Page 395
 7.1 Introduction......Page 398
 7.2 Data Collection......Page 399
 7.3 Simulation Techniques......Page 400
  7.3.2 Model Verification......Page 401
  7.3.3 Model Predictions......Page 402
   7.3.3.1 Artificial Neural Networks......Page 403
   7.3.3.2 Fuzzy Sets and Parameter Imprecision......Page 418
   7.3.3.3 System Dynamics......Page 424
   7.3.3.4 Agent-Based Modeling......Page 434
 7.4 Optimization Models for Groundwater Management......Page 438
  7.4.1 Optimization Model for Groundwater Operation......Page 439
  7.4.2 Optimization Model for Capacity Expansion......Page 442
  7.4.3 Optimization Model for Water Allocation......Page 446
  7.4.4 Optimization Model for Conjunctive Water Use......Page 449
  7.4.5 Optimal Groundwater Quality Management Model......Page 450
  7.4.6 Optimization Model for Parameters of Groundwater Model......Page 451
 7.5 Optimization Techniques......Page 452
  7.5.1 Single-Criterion Optimization......Page 453
  7.5.2 Multi-criteria Optimization......Page 455
   7.5.2.2 The e-Constraint Method......Page 456
   7.5.2.3 The Weighting Method......Page 457
   7.5.2.4 Interactive Fuzzy Approach......Page 459
   7.5.3.1 Dynamic Programming......Page 461
   7.5.3.2 Genetic Algorithm......Page 463
   7.5.3.3 Simulation Annealing......Page 467
 7.6 Conflict Resolution......Page 469
  7.6.1 Stakeholder Involvement......Page 475
   7.6.1.2 Conflict Handling......Page 476
   7.6.1.3 Quantifying Meeting Outcomes......Page 477
  7.6.2 Application of Game Theory in Multi-objective Groundwater Management......Page 478
 7.7 Groundwater Systems Economics......Page 481
  7.7.1 Economic Analysis of Multiple Alternatives......Page 486
  7.7.2 Economic Evaluation of Projects Using Benefit–Cost Ratio Method......Page 488
  7.8.1 Case 1: Development of a System Dynamics Model for Water Transfer......Page 489
   7.8.1.2 Conflict Resolution Model for Land Resources Allocation in Each Zone......Page 490
   7.8.1.3 Results of the Conflict Resolution Model......Page 492
   7.8.1.5 Sizing Channel Capacity......Page 493
   7.8.1.6 Conclusion—Making Technologies Work......Page 494
   7.8.2.1 Water Resources Characteristics in the Study Area......Page 495
   7.8.2.2 Conflict Resolution Model......Page 497
   7.8.2.3 Results and Discussion......Page 500
   7.8.3.1 Case Study Characteristics......Page 501
   7.8.3.2 Model Characteristics......Page 502
   7.8.3.4 Results of Agent-Based Modeling......Page 504
   7.8.4.1 Area Characteristics......Page 505
   7.8.4.2 Simulation-Multi-objective Optimization Model......Page 506
 Problems......Page 511
 References......Page 515
 8.2 Interaction between Surface and Groundwater......Page 520
  8.2.2 Concepts of Interaction between Surface Water and Groundwater......Page 521
  8.2.3 Bank Storage and Baseflow Recession......Page 524
   8.2.3.1 Master-Depletion Curve Method......Page 525
   8.2.3.2 Seasonal Recession Method (Meyboom Method)......Page 526
   8.2.3.4 Constant-Slope Baseflow Separation......Page 527
   8.2.3.5 Concave-Baseflow Separation......Page 528
  8.2.4 Groundwater and Lakes......Page 529
 8.3 Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater......Page 531
  8.3.1 Advantages of Conjunctive Use......Page 532
  8.3.3 Case Study 1: Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater in Lakhaoti Canal Uttar Pradesh, India......Page 533
  8.3.4 Surface and Groundwater Conjunctive Use Modeling......Page 536
  8.3.5 Multi-objective Conjunctive Use Optimization......Page 544
   8.3.5.1 Groundwater Resource Sustainability Limits......Page 545
   8.3.6.1 Simulation Model......Page 546
   8.3.6.2 Optimization Model Framework......Page 550
   8.3.6.3 Results and Discussion......Page 552
  8.3.7 Case Study 3: Water Allocation from the Aquifer-River System Using a Conflict Resolution Model......Page 553
   8.3.7.1 Optimization Model Framework......Page 557
   8.3.7.2 Results and Discussion......Page 559
  8.3.8 Case Study 4: Conjunctive Use and Crop Pattern Management......Page 561
   8.3.8.1 Optimization Model Structure......Page 563
   8.3.8.2 Results and Discussion......Page 566
 8.4 Operation of Groundwater Resources in Semiarid Region......Page 567
 Problems......Page 569
 References......Page 570
 9.1 Introduction......Page 572
 9.2 Partitioning Process......Page 573
 9.3 Retardation......Page 575
 9.4 Natural Losses of Contaminants......Page 576
  9.4.2 Biological Degradation......Page 577
  9.4.3 Plant Uptake......Page 578
   9.5.1.3 Effluent Charges/Credits......Page 579
  9.5.2 Source Control Strategies......Page 580
  9.5.3 Stabilization/Solidification Strategies......Page 581
  9.5.5 Interceptor Systems......Page 583
  9.5.6 Surface Water Control, Capping, and Liners......Page 584
  9.5.7 Sheet Piling......Page 585
  9.5.9 Slurry Walls......Page 586
  9.6.1 Air Sparging......Page 588
  9.6.2 Carbon Adsorption......Page 589
  9.6.3 Adding Chemicals and In Situ Chemical Oxidation......Page 590
  9.6.4 Thermal Technologies......Page 591
  9.6.5 Bioremediation Techniques......Page 592
   9.6.6.2 Permeable Reactive Barriers......Page 593
 9.7 Aquifer Restoration—Overdraft Issues......Page 595
   9.7.1.2 Projects......Page 596
   9.7.1.3 Operational Program (Action Plans)......Page 597
 9.8 Monitoring Subsurface Water......Page 598
  9.8.1 Vadose-Zone Monitoring......Page 599
  9.8.2 Groundwater Monitoring......Page 600
  9.8.3 Water Quality Variable Selection......Page 601
  9.8.4 Geostatistical Tools for Water Quality-Monitoring Networks......Page 602
   9.8.4.1 Kriging......Page 603
  9.8.5 Location of Water Quality Monitoring Stations......Page 606
   9.8.5.1 Definition and Discretization of the Model Domain......Page 607
   9.8.5.2 Calculation of Weights for Candidate Monitoring Sites......Page 608
   9.8.5.3 Optimal Configuration of a Monitoring Well Network......Page 609
   9.8.5.4 Kriging Method in Designing an Optimal Monitoring Well Network......Page 610
   9.8.5.5 Genetic Algorithms in Designing an Optimal Monitoring Well Network......Page 611
   9.8.6.1 Methods of Selecting Sampling Frequencies......Page 613
   9.8.6.2 Single Station and Single Water Quality Variable......Page 614
   9.8.6.3 Single Station and Multiple Water Quality Variables......Page 615
   9.8.6.4 Multiple Stations and a Single Water Quality Variable......Page 616
  9.8.7 Entropy Theory in a Water Quality-Monitoring Network......Page 617
   9.8.7.1 Entropy Theory......Page 618
  9.9.1 Principal Consideration......Page 620
   9.9.1.1 Sources of Recharge Water and Its Quality Considerations......Page 622
   9.9.1.2 Hydrogeological Settings and Controls on Recharge......Page 623
   9.9.1.3 MAR Methods......Page 624
   9.9.2.1 MAR in Urban Settings......Page 629
   9.9.2.2 MAR in Agricultural Settings......Page 631
   9.9.2.3 MAR in Coastal Areas......Page 635
 Problems......Page 636
 References......Page 638
 10.1 Introduction......Page 644
  10.2.1 Elements of Risk Assessment......Page 645
  10.2.2 Assessment of Dose-Response......Page 647
  10.2.3 Risk Assessment Methods and Tools......Page 648
   10.2.3.1 Potency Factor for Cancer-Causing Substances......Page 649
  10.2.4 Environmental Risk Analysis......Page 653
 10.3 Groundwater Risk Management......Page 654
  10.3.1 Groundwater Risk Mitigation......Page 655
  10.4.1 Requirements for Institutional and Technical Capacities......Page 656
  10.4.2 Prevention and Mitigation of Natural and Man-Induced Disasters......Page 657
  10.4.3 Disaster Management Phases......Page 658
  10.5.1 Reliability......Page 659
  10.5.3 Vulnerability......Page 665
 10.6 Groundwater Vulnerability......Page 666
  10.6.1 Drought......Page 667
   10.6.1.2 Drought Triggers......Page 670
   10.6.1.4 Drought Vulnerability Maps......Page 672
   10.6.1.6 Case Study......Page 673
   10.6.1.7 Qanats......Page 674
  10.6.2 Flood......Page 676
   10.6.2.1 Maps of Groundwater Flood Hazard......Page 677
  10.6.3 Land Subsidence......Page 679
   10.6.3.1 Subsidence Calculation......Page 680
   10.6.3.3 Reducing Future Subsidence......Page 681
  10.6.4 Widespread Contamination......Page 682
   10.6.4.1 Vulnerability Assessment in Groundwater Pollution......Page 686
   10.6.4.2 DRASTIC Method......Page 688
  10.6.5 Case Study: Development of Vulnerability Maps for a Drought......Page 693
   10.6.5.1 Summary......Page 697
 Problems......Page 698
 References......Page 700
 11.1 Introduction......Page 704
 11.2 Climate Change......Page 705
 11.3 Climate Change Impacts on Hydrological Cycle......Page 706
  11.3.1 Floods and Droughts......Page 707
  11.3.3 Water Use......Page 708
  11.3.6 Hydroelectric Power......Page 709
 11.4 General Climate Change Impacts on Groundwater......Page 710
   11.4.1.2 Precipitation......Page 712
   11.4.1.3 Soil Moisture......Page 714
  11.4.2 Direct Impacts of Climate Change on Groundwater......Page 715
   11.4.2.1 Groundwater Recharge......Page 716
   11.4.2.2 Recharge Estimation Methods......Page 717
   11.4.2.4 Hydraulic Conductivity......Page 718
   11.4.3.1 Sea-Level Rise......Page 719
   11.4.3.2 Saltwater Intrusion in Coastal Aquifers......Page 720
   11.4.3.3 Storm Surge and Saltwater Intrusion......Page 722
   11.4.3.4 Ghyben–Herzberg Relation between Freshwater and Saline Waters......Page 723
   11.4.3.5 Island Freshwater Lens......Page 724
  11.5.1 Depletion of Groundwater Table......Page 727
   11.5.2.2 Salinization of Groundwater by Sea-Level Rise......Page 728
 11.6 Adaptation to Climate Change......Page 729
  11.6.2 Modification of Groundwater Extraction Pattern......Page 730
 11.7 IPCC Assessment Report......Page 731
 11.8 Climate Change Simulation......Page 733
   11.8.1.1 Recent Communities’ Scenarios Development......Page 734
   11.8.1.2 Downscaling......Page 736
   11.8.1.3 Regional Models......Page 737
  11.8.2 Statistical Downscaling......Page 738
  11.9.1 Statistical Downscaling Model......Page 741
  11.9.2 LARS-WG Model......Page 744
 11.10 New Insights—Risks and Vulnerabilities......Page 753
 11.11 Climate Change Impacts on Water Availability in an Aquifer......Page 754
 Problems......Page 761
 References......Page 763
Index......Page 768