Green Sustainable Process for Chemical and Environmental Engineering and Science: Biomedical Application of Biosurfactant in Medical Sector

Front Cover
Green Sustainable Process for Chemical and Environmental Engineering and Science
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
1 Application of low molecular weight and high molecular weight biosurfactant in medicine/biomedical/pharmaceutical industries
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 High molecular weight biosurfactant
		1.2.1 Protein
		1.2.2 Polysaccharide
		1.2.3 Lipoprotein
			1.2.3.1 Lipoprotein lipase in diseases pathology
	1.3 Low molecular weight biosurfactant
		1.3.1 Glycolipid
		1.3.2 Cyclic and acyclic lipopeptides
		1.3.3 Trehalose lipid biosurfactant with phospholipid
		1.3.4 Lipopeptide
		1.3.5 Acetylated acidic sophorolipid
	1.4 Conclusions
	References
2 Application of biosurfactant as an adjuvant in medicine
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Biosurfactant types and structure–activity relationship
	2.3 Lipopeptides
	2.4 Surfactin and surfactin derived
	2.5 Nucleolipids
	2.6 Glycolipids
	2.7 Full peptides
	2.8 Medicinal properties of biosurfactants
	2.9 Biosurfactants as antitumor agents
	2.10 Biosurfactants as antiviral agents
	2.11 Biosurfactants as antibacterial agents
	2.12 Biosurfactants as drug-delivery agents
	2.13 Biosurfactants as antiadhesive agents
	2.14 Biosurfactants as antimicrobial agents
	2.15 Biosurfactants: mechanism of interaction
	2.16 Conclusion
	References
3 Applications of biosurfactants in dentistry
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Oral biofilm
		3.2.1 Microbial biofilm causing dental caries
		3.2.2 Microbial biofilms and its association with periodontal infections and tooth loss
		3.2.3 Microbial biofilms and its association with prosthesis and dental implants
		3.2.4 Available agents for removal of dental plaque
	3.3 Biosurfactants versus synthetic surfactants
	3.4 Therapeutic properties of biosurfactants in biomedical field
		3.4.1 Antimicrobial properties
		3.4.2 Antiadhesive properties
		3.4.3 Antibiofilm properties
		3.4.4 Anticancer properties
		3.4.5 Emulsion-forming properties
	3.5 Biosurfactants from lactic acid bacteria strains
		3.5.1 Cytotoxic effects of lactic acid bacteria–derived biosurfactants
	3.6 Other sources of biosurfactants
		3.6.1 Biosurfactants from endophytes
		3.6.2 Biosurfactants from Candida
		3.6.3 Biosurfactants from Pseudomonas
		3.6.4 Biosurfactants from streptococcus
	3.7 Applications of biosurfactants in oral health
	3.8 Biosurfactants and future goals
	3.9 Conclusion
	References
4 Expansion of targeted drug-delivery systems using microbially sources biosurfactant
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Microbial biosurfactants
		4.2.1 Mannosylerythritol lipids
		4.2.2 Succinoyl trehalose lipids
		4.2.3 Sophorolipids
		4.2.4 Rhamnolipids
		4.2.5 Surfactin
	4.3 Microbial biosurfactants as drug-delivery systems
	4.4 Types of biosurfactant-based drug-delivery system
		4.4.1 Liposomes
		4.4.2 Niosomes
		4.4.3 Nanoparticles
	4.5 Conclusions and future challenges
	Acknowledgments
	References
5 Inhibition of fibrin clot formation
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Coagulation factors and fibrin clot formation
	5.3 Consequences of fibrin clot formation
	5.4 Inhibition of fibrin clot formation
		5.4.1 By enzymes
		5.4.2 By using chemical drugs
		5.4.3 New drugs
	5.5 Biosurfactants as drug
	5.6 Conclusion
	References
6 Application of biosurfactant for the management of tropical and life-threatening diseases
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Framework of the research study
		6.2.1 Production of biosurfactants
		6.2.2 Extraction of the biosurfactants
		6.2.3 Biosurfactant activity tests (confirmation assays)/characterization of biosurfactants
		6.2.4 Medicinal application of the biosurfactant
	6.3 Tropical and life-threatening diseases
	6.4 Application of the biosurfactants against tropical and life-threatening diseases
		6.4.1 Viruses based tropical diseases
		6.4.2 Bacteria based tropical diseases
		6.4.3 Parasites based tropical diseases
	6.5 Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	Conflict of interest
	References
7 Application of biosurfactant for the management of Plasmodium parasites
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 Application of biosurfactant in an in vitro and in vivo for the management of Plasmodium falciparum vectors
	7.2 Environmental application of biosurfactant for the management
	7.3 Biology of Plasmodium species
	7.4 Conclusion and future recommendation
	References
8 Role of biosurfactant in the destruction of pores and destabilization of the biological membrane of pathogenic microorganisms
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Modes of action involved in the biological activity of biosurfactants as antipathogen agent
	8.3 Modes of action involved in the biological activity of biosurfactants
	8.4 The mechanism involved in the biological control of pathogenic microorganisms
	8.5 Modes of action involved in the application of biosurfactant
	8.6 Modes of action involved in the application of biosurfactant
	8.7 Treatment of the parasite using in vivo and in vitro treatments of malaria parasites
	8.8 Modes of action involved in the application of biosurfactant for the management of the vector and the parasites
	8.9 Conclusion and future recommendation
	References
	Further reading
9 Antibacterial and antifungal activities of lipopeptides
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Specific examples of antifungal and antibacterial properties of iturins
	9.3 Specific examples of lipopeptides as antibacterial and antifungal agents
	9.4 The antiparasitic and antitumor activities of surfactin
	9.5 Synthesis, extraction, and purification of biosurfactant
	9.6 Physicochemical separation parameters of biosurfactants
	9.7 Direct liquid partitioning from cell culture
	9.8 Separation by precipitation
	9.9 Solvent extraction
	9.10 Ammonium sulfate precipitation method
	9.11 Zinc sulfate precipitation method
	9.12 Acid precipitation method
	9.13 Studies on extraction and purification of biosurfactants
	9.14 Characterization of biosurfactant
	9.15 Fourier transform infrared features of glycolipids
	9.16 Fengycin
	9.17 Isolation and purification of lipopeptides
	9.18 Conclusion and future recommendation
	References
10 The role of biosurfactants in the advancement of veterinary medicine
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Properties of biosurfactants
	10.3 Types of biosurfactants
	10.4 Toxicity of biosurfactant
	10.5 Potential application of biosurfactants in veterinary field
		10.5.1 Antitumor/anticancer effects
		10.5.2 Biosurfactants as antimicrobial / antibiofilm agent
		10.5.3 Immunomodulatory role of biosurfactants
		10.5.4 Biosurfactants in wound healing
		10.5.5 Biosurfactants in delivery of veterinary drugs
	10.6 Future prospects and conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	Conflicts of interest
	References
11 Applications of surfactin and other biosurfactants in anticancer activity
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Characteristics and mechanism of action of biosurfactants
		11.2.1 Characteristics of biosurfactants
		11.2.2 Mechanism of action of biosurfactants
	11.3 Applications of biosurfactants in anticancer activity
	11.4 Applications of surfactin in anticancer activity
	11.5 Applications of other biosurfactants in cancer therapy
		11.5.1 Iturin
		11.5.2 Fengycin
		11.5.3 Somocystinamide A
		11.5.4 Fellutamides
		11.5.5 Pseudofactin
		11.5.6 Rakicidin
		11.5.7 Apratoxin
	11.6 Conclusion
	References
12 Inhibitory activity of biosurfactants against H+-K+ ATPases and defense against gastric ulcers
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Biosurfactants: potential application as a therapeutic target
	12.3 Function of H+/K+-ATPase in gastric ulcer formation
	12.4 Efficiency of proton pump inhibitors to treat gastric ulcers
	12.5 Pumilacidin: its role in the control of gastric ulcer
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13 Applications of biosurfactants as nonpyrogenic and nontoxic immunologic adjuvants
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Biological and therapeutic role of biosurfactants
	13.3 Immunomodulatory role of biosurfactants
	13.4 Biosurfactants and immunologic adjuvants
	13.5 Applications of biosurfactants as immunologic adjuvants
	13.6 General mechanism of immunologic adjuvant activity
		13.6.1 Sustain release of antigen from injection site
		13.6.2 Upregulation of cytokines and chemokines and cellular recruitment of immune cells
		13.6.3 Increase antigen presentation on antigen-presenting cells
		13.6.4 Dendritic cells activation and maturation
		13.6.5 Inflammasomes activation
	References
14 Antifungal activity of biosurfactant against profound mycosis
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Production of biosurfactants
		14.2.1 Metabolic pathways/biosynthesis and optimization strategies
		14.2.2 Industrial production of biosurfactants
		14.2.3 Low-cost substrates in the production of biosurfactants
		14.2.4 Downstream processes in the production of biosurfactants
	14.3 Properties characterization of the biosurfactants
		14.3.1 Physicochemical and structural characterization
		14.3.2 Thermal behavior
		14.3.3 Antimicrobial or antifungal activity
		14.3.4 Functional properties
	14.4 Etiological agents of profound mycoses and application of biosurfactants against them
		14.4.1 Etiological agent of profound mycoses
			14.4.1.1 Systemic candidiasis
			14.4.1.2 Pulmonary aspergillosis
			14.4.1.3 Paracoccidioido mycosis
			14.4.1.4 Coccidioido mycosis
			14.4.1.5 Cryptococcosis
			14.4.1.6 Histoplasmosis
			14.4.1.7 Pneumocystosis
		14.4.2 Antifungals
		14.4.3 Biosurfactants
	14.5 Final considerations
	References
15 Hemolysis and formation of ion channels in lipid membrane
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Role of biosurfactants
	15.3 Classification of surfactants
	15.4 Mechanism of hemolysis caused by surfactants
	15.5 Role of lipid layer in pore formation and membrane lysis
	15.6 Mechanism of pore formation and membrane lysis
		15.6.1 The three-stage model by helenius and simons
		15.6.2 Modes of membrane disordering
	15.7 Applications of biosurfactants
	15.8 Structural aspects of biosurfactants playing role in hemolysis and membrane lysis
	15.9 Factors influencing pore formation
	15.10 Research work on the role of surfactants in hemolysis
	15.11 Research on the role of biosurfactants in pore formation and membrane lysis
	15.12 Conclusion
	References
16 Biosurfactant as a vehicle for targeted antitumor and anticancer drug delivery
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Properties of biosurfactant
	16.3 Antitumor and anticancer properties of biosurfactants
	16.4 Biosurfactants as drug carriers
		16.4.1 Microemulsions
		16.4.2 Nanoparticles
		16.4.3 Vesicles
	16.5 Conclusion and future outlook
	References
	Further reading
17 Biosurfactants in the pharmaceuticalsciences
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Main uses of surfactants in the pharmaceutical industry
	17.3 Biosurfactants
	17.4 Reports of biosurfactants employed in the pharmaceutical sector
	17.5 Final considerations
	References
18 Naturally occurring bioactive biosurfactants
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Bioactivity of naturally occurring biosurfactants
		18.2.1 Antimicrobial activity
		18.2.2 Antifungal activity
		18.2.3 Antiviral activity
		18.2.4 Antibioflim activity
		18.2.5 Anticancer activity
		18.2.6 Antitumor activity
		18.2.7 Wound healing and antiinflamatory activity
		18.2.8 Antimelanogenic activity
		18.2.9 Antimycoplasmal activity
		18.2.10 Anti-HIV activity
		18.2.11 Antithrombotic activity
		18.2.12 Antiproliferative activity
		18.2.13 Antioxidant activity
		18.2.14 Activity against Coronavirus disease 2019
		18.2.15 Larvicidal and pupicidal activity
	18.3 Conclusions
	Acknowledgement
	References
19 Application of biosurfactants in the treatment of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Biosurfactants
		19.2.1 Classification
			19.2.1.1 Microbial origin
			19.2.1.2 Chemical nature
	19.3 Biosurfactant synthesis
		19.3.1 Producers
		19.3.2 Physiology of production
		19.3.3 Factors affecting biosurfactant production
	19.4 Properties of biosurfactants
	19.5 Mycobacterium tuberculosis
		19.5.1 Type and disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
		19.5.2 Pathogenesis
		19.5.3 Manifestation
		19.5.4 Diagnosis
	19.6 Molecular mechanism of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
	19.7 Therapeutics of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
		19.7.1 Via drugs
		19.7.2 Via biosurfactants
			19.7.2.1 Antimicrobial activity
			19.7.2.2 Immunomodulatory actions
	19.8 Future prospective
	References
20 Biosurfactants role in nanotechnology for anticancer treatment
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Types of biosurfactants
		20.2.1 Glycolipids
		20.2.2 Lipoproteins/Lipopeptides
		20.2.3 Phospholipids
		20.2.4 Polymerics
		20.2.5 Particulate biosurfactants
	20.3 Biosurfactants as surface modifiers
		20.3.1 Inorganic nanoparticles
			20.3.1.1 Iron oxide nanoparticles
			20.3.1.2 Silver nanoparticles
			20.3.1.3 Gold nanoparticles
			20.3.1.4 Similarly, zinc oxide nanoparticles
			20.3.1.5 Carbon nanotubes
		20.3.2 Organic nanoparticles
			20.3.2.1 Dendrimers
	20.4 Role of biosurfactants in cancer therapy
		20.4.1 Breast cancer
		20.4.2 Lung cancer
		20.4.3 Colon cancer
		20.4.4 Brain tumor
		20.4.5 Leukemia
	20.5 Future perspective
	References
21 Application of low- and high-molecular-weight biosurfactants in medicine/biomedical/pharmaceutical industries
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Classification of biosurfactants
		21.2.1 Low-molecular-weight biosurfactants
			21.2.1.1 Glycolipids
			21.2.1.2 Lipopeptides
			21.2.1.3 Phospholipids, fatty acids, and neutral lipids
		21.2.2 High-molecular-weight biosurfactants
	21.3 Applications of biosurfactant
		21.3.1 Applications in the field of medicines
		21.3.2 Other applications
	21.4 Conclusion
	References
22 Biosurfactants for pharmacological interventions in cancer therapy
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Types and sources of biosurfactants
		22.2.1 Lipopeptides and lipoproteins
	22.3 Raw materials used for biosurfactant production
	22.4 Biosurfactant with potent anticancer activity against different cancers with mechanism
		22.4.1 Breast cancer
		22.4.2 Colon cancer
		22.4.3 Leukemia
	22.5 Biosurfactant-nanoconjugates for cancer treatment
	22.6 Biosurfactant-nanoconjugates in diagnosis
	22.7 Biosurfactant-nanoconjugates in treatment
	22.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
	Acknowledgment
	References
23 Biosurfactants in respiratory viruses and the Coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 A quick overview of biosurfactants
		23.2.1 Definition
		23.2.2 Types of biosurfactants
		23.2.3 Advantages of biosurfactants
		23.2.4 Production and application
			23.2.4.1 Sources of biosurfactant production and screening
				23.2.4.1.1 Bacteria
				23.2.4.1.2 Yeasts
				23.2.4.1.3 Filamentous fungi
			23.2.4.2 Factors involved in its production
			23.2.4.3 Major applications in medicine
	23.3 Viruses and biosurfactants
		23.3.1 Different classes of viruses
		23.3.2 Respiratory viruses and Coronavirus (severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus-2)
		23.3.3 Mode of action of biosurfactants on viruses
		23.3.4 Different roles of biosurfactants in respiratory viral infections including Coronavirus disease 2019
			23.3.4.1 Virucidal effect on enveloped viruses
			23.3.4.2 Surfactant in acute respiratory distress syndrome
			23.3.4.3 Disinfection and cleaning applications
			23.3.4.4 Drug delivery systems, adjuvants, and vaccine development
	23.4 Conclusion
	Acknowledgement
	References
24 Biosurfactant as an intervention for medical device associated infections
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Nosocomial device-associated infections
	24.3 Role of biofilms on device-associated infections
	24.4 Role of biosurfactants in biofilm mode of growth
	24.5 Application of biosurfactant specific to device-associated infections
		24.5.1 Biosurfactants with antiadhesion property
		24.5.2 Biosurfactants with antibiofilm property
			24.5.2.1 Lipopeptide biosurfactants as antibiofilm agents
			24.5.2.2 Polymyxins
			24.5.2.3 Fengycin-like lipopeptides
			24.5.2.4 Putisolvin
			24.5.2.5 Pseudofactin
			24.5.2.6 Surfactins
			24.5.2.7 Complexes of lipopeptides
			24.5.2.8 Rhamnolipids
			24.5.2.9 Sophorolipids
			24.5.2.10 Other glycolipids with antibiofilm properties
			24.5.2.11 Complex surfactant mixtures
			24.5.2.12 Biosurfactants from fungi with antibiofilm property
		24.5.3 Biosurfactant assisted surface modification to prevent device-associated infections
	24.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
25 Biosurfactants for industrial applications
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Materials and methods for biosurfactants
		25.2.1 Exploring cheap sources/substrate
		25.2.2 Manipulating/fine-tuning the manufacturing conditions
			25.2.2.1 Carbon source
			25.2.2.2 Nitrogen source
			25.2.2.3 Solid-state and submerged fermentation
		25.2.3 Exploring nonpathogenic microbial strain that produces natural products
		25.2.4 Surveying improved low-cost separation and purification methods (multistep downstream processing)
		25.2.5 Metabolic and cellular engineering for microbial strain improvement
	25.3 Industrial applications of biosurfactant in biomedical area
		25.3.1 Biosurfactants for antimicrobial activities
		25.3.2 Biosurfactants for antibiofilm
		25.3.3 Biosurfactants as antitumor/anticancer agents
		25.3.4 Potential applications of biosurfactants in immunomodulatory activities
		25.3.5 Potential applications of biosurfactant in gene transfection and drug delivery
		25.3.6 Wound healing and dermatological applications
	25.4 Conclusion and future perspectives
	References
26 Antitumor and anticancer activity of biosurfactant
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Anticancer and antitumor activity of biosurfactants
		26.2.1 Breast cancer
		26.2.2 Melanoma cells
		26.2.3 Colon cancer
		26.2.4 Hepatoma cancer
		26.2.5 Cervical cancer
		26.2.6 Human epidermal keratinocyte line
		26.2.7 Carcinoma cancer cells
		26.2.8 Leukemia cells
			26.2.8.1 Induction of paraptosis
			26.2.8.2 Inhibition of autophagy progress
			26.2.8.3 Induction of apoptosis
		26.2.9 Lung cancer cells
	26.3 Other biomedical applications
		26.3.1 Biosurfactants as antibiofilm agent
		26.3.2 Biosurfactants as antimicrobial agent
		26.3.3 Biosurfactants in drug delivery
	26.4 Conclusion
	References
27 Biosurfactant as antibiofilm agent
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 What is biofilm?
		27.2.1 Characteristics of a biofilm formation
		27.2.2 Process of biofilm formation
		27.2.3 Harmful effects of biofilm
			27.2.3.1 Impact on human health
			27.2.3.2 Food spoilage
			27.2.3.3 Ship biofouling
	27.3 Biosurfactants
		27.3.1 Types of biosurfactants
			27.3.1.1 Glycolipids
			27.3.1.2 Phospholipids
			27.3.1.3 Polymeric biosurfactants
			27.3.1.4 Lipopeptides
	27.4 Biosurfactants as antibiofilm agent
		27.4.1 Polymyxins biosurfactants as antibiofilm agent
		27.4.2 Surfactins as antibiofilm agent
		27.4.3 Putisolvin as antibiofilm agent
		27.4.4 Pseudofactin as antibiofilm agent
		27.4.5 Rhamnolipids as antibiofilm agent
		27.4.6 Sophorolipids as antibiofilm agent
	27.5 Conclusion
	References
28 Rheological behavior of biosurfactants
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Brief introduction on biosurfactants
	28.3 Rheological properties of some biosurfactants and their systems
		28.3.1 Rheology of emulsions
		28.3.2 Rheology of foams and biofilms
		28.3.3 Rheology of solutions
	28.4 Conclusions
	References
29 Biosurfactants for optimal delivery of poorly soluble therapeutic agents
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Biosurfactants: important component in pharmaceutical products
	29.3 Potential advantages of biosurfactants
		29.3.1 Biodegradability
		29.3.2 Low toxicity
		29.3.3 Cost-effectiveness
		29.3.4 Temperature and pH tolerance
		29.3.5 Surface and interface activity
	29.4 Classification of biosurfactants
		29.4.1 Glycolipids
		29.4.2 Lipopeptides
		29.4.3 Fatty acids
		29.4.4 Polymeric biosurfactants
		29.4.5 Phospholipid
	29.5 Biosurfactants for delivery of poorly soluble drugs
	29.6 Concluding remarks
	References
30 Role of surfactants in pulmonary drug delivery
	30.1 Introduction
	30.2 Pulmonary diseases management: therapies and interventions
	30.3 Surfactants: properties and applications
	30.4 Biosurfactants: source, properties, and purpose
	30.5 Applications of biosurfactants in pulmonary diseases
	30.6 Clinical trial perspective
	30.7 Conclusion
	References
31 Antioxidant activity of biogenic surfactants
	31.1 Biosurfactants
	31.2 Properties of biosurfactants
		31.2.1 Critical micelle concentration
		31.2.2 Surface and interfacial properties
		31.2.3 Temperature and pH tolerance
		31.2.4 Biodegradability and low toxicity
		31.2.5 Emulsification
	31.3 Classification and chemical nature of biosurfactants
		31.3.1 Glycolipids
			31.3.1.1 Rhamnolipids
			31.3.1.2 Trehalose lipids
			31.3.1.3 Sophorolipids
		31.3.2 Lipopeptides and lipoproteins
		31.3.3 Polymeric and particulate biosurfactants
		31.3.4 Fatty acid, phospholipids, and neutral lipids
	31.4 Biosurfactant production
		31.4.1 Substrates used for commercial biosurfactant production [27]
			31.4.1.1 Agricultural waste
			31.4.1.2 Dairy industry whey
			31.4.1.3 Industrial waste
			31.4.1.4 Vegetable oils
		31.4.2 Factors affecting the production of biosurfactants
			31.4.2.1 Nutrient sources and salt concentration
			31.4.2.2 Environmental factors
		31.4.3 Extraction of biosurfactants
		31.4.4 Purification of biosurfactants
			31.4.4.1 Thin-layer chromatography
			31.4.4.2 Dialysis
			31.4.4.3 Isoelectric focusing
	31.5 Characterization of biosurfactants
	31.6 Applications of biosurfactants
		31.6.1 Application in cosmetic industry
		31.6.2 Application in laundry industry
		31.6.3 Application in petroleum
		31.6.4 Application in microbial enhanced oil recovery
		31.6.5 Application in food processing industry
		31.6.6 Application in agriculture
		31.6.7 Pharmaceutical applications
	31.7 Antioxidants
		31.7.1 Source of antioxidants
		31.7.2 Types of antioxidants
		31.7.3 Classification
	31.8 Methods for evaluation of antioxidant activity
		31.8.1 1-Diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl scavenging activity
		31.8.2 Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity method/ABTS radical cation decolorization assay
		31.8.3 Hydrogen peroxide scavenging assay
		31.8.4 Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay
		31.8.5 Reducing power method
		31.8.6 Superoxide radical scavenging activity
		31.8.7 Ferric thiocyanate method
		31.8.8 Phosphomolybdenum method
		31.8.9 Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity
		31.8.10 Metal chelating activity
		31.8.11 ß-carotene linoleic acid method/conjugated diene assay
	31.9 Biosurfactants and their antioxidant property
	31.10 Conclusion
	References
32 Recent advances in biosurfactant as antiadhesion/antibiofilm agents
	32.1 Introduction
	32.2 Microbial biofilm formation
	32.3 Biosurfactant as antiadhesive agent
	32.4 Biosurfactant as antibiofilm agent
	32.5 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
33 Current trends in the application of biosurfactant in the synthesis of nanobiosurfactant such as engineered biomolecules...
	33.1 Introduction
	33.2 Microbial synthesis of biosurfactants
		33.2.1 Applications of biosurfactants
		33.2.2 Role of biosurfactants in biosynthesis of nanoparticles
	33.3 Conclusion
	References
34 Application of biosurfactants in the food industry: supply chain and green economy perspectives
	34.1 Introduction
		34.1.1 Classification of biosurfactants
		34.1.2 Biosurfactant properties
			34.1.2.1 The surface and interfacial activity
			34.1.2.2 pH, temperature, and tolerance to ionic strength
			34.1.2.3 Biodegradability
			34.1.2.4 Low toxicity and availability
			34.1.2.5 Emulsification and demulsification
			34.1.2.6 Antimicrobial activity
	34.2 Methodology
	34.3 Biosurfactant production from food and agro-waste
	34.4 Potential food applications of biosurfactants
		34.4.1 Antioxidants and antiadhesives
		34.4.2 Salad dressings
		34.4.3 Ice cream and bakery products
		34.4.4 Emulsifying and stabilizing agents
		34.4.5 Food additives and flavoring agents
	34.5 Discussion and analysis
		34.5.1 Techno-economic challenges
		34.5.2 Supply chain framework
		34.5.3 Green economy perspectives
	34.6 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
35 Understanding mechanisms underlying genes regulating the production of biosurfactant
	35.1 Introduction
	35.2 Mechanism of working of biosurfactants
	35.3 Enhancing the surface area of water-insoluble hydrophobic substances
	35.4 Increasing biological availability of water-insoluble substances
	35.5 Molecular genetic mechanisms of microbial synthesis of biosurfactants
		35.5.1 Phospholipids and fatty acids (mycolic acids) biosurfactants
		35.5.2 Lipoproteins or lipopeptides biosurfactants
			35.5.2.1 Surfactin
			35.5.2.2 Lichenysin
			35.5.2.3 Iturin
			35.5.2.4 Arthrofactin
			35.5.2.5 Viscosin
			35.5.2.6 Amphisin
			35.5.2.7 Putisolvin
			35.5.2.8 Serrawettin
		35.5.3 Glycolypid biosurfactants
	35.6 Gene regulation in fungal biosurfactants
	35.7 Molecular engineering facets for novel and customized biosurfactants
	35.8 Commercial applications of biosurfactants
		35.8.1 Biosurfactants in food industry
		35.8.2 Biomedical and therapeutic applications of biosurfactants
	35.9 Toxicological and ecological aspects of biosurfactants
	35.10 Bioremediation using biosurfactants
	35.11 Conclusion
	35.12 Acknowledgments
	35.13 Conflict of interest
	References
	Further reading
Index
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