Green Infrastructure and Climate Change Adaptation: Function, Implementation and Governance

Preface
Contents
1 Introduction
	References
Part I Concept and Synthesis
	2 Concept and Application of Green and Hybrid Infrastructure
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Conceptual Framework for Hybrid Infrastructure
		2.3 Attenuation of Flood Peaks by Forest and Wetland Ecosystems (Examples of GI-1 in Fig. 2.4c)
		2.4 Traditional Measures Against Large Floods (Examples of GI-2)
			2.4.1 Discontinuous Levees
			2.4.2 Overflow Embankment
			2.4.3 Flood Protection Forest
		2.5 Hybrid Infrastructure at Watershed Scale
		2.6 Green Infrastructure Functioning as Ecological Networks
		2.7 Important Points for Planning, Implementation, and Governance of GI
		References
	3 An Economic Analysis of Optimal Hybrid Infrastructure: A Theoretical Approach in a Hydro-Economic Model
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Green, Gray, and Hybrid Infrastructures
			3.2.1 Green Infrastructure
			3.2.2 Gray Infrastructure
			3.2.3 Hybrid Infrastructure
			3.2.4 Ratios of Prevented Hazard by GNI and GYI
		3.3 Optimal Hybrid Infrastructure
		3.4 Concluding Remarks
		References
	4 Flood Management Policy in Shiga Prefecture, Japan: Implementation Approach of a Risk-Based Flood Management System at Catchment Scale
		4.1 Changes in Flood Risk Management in Japan
		4.2 Flood Management Policy in Shiga Prefecture: Policy Formulation
			4.2.1 The History of Wise Land Use and Urban Development: Hints from History
			4.2.2 Policy Features: Process Management and Framework Design
			4.2.3 Site Safety Level: Basic Information for Policy Decisions
			4.2.4 Floodplain Disaster Mitigation Measures
		4.3 Floodplain Management and Green Infrastructure
			4.3.1 Establishing a “Floodplain Manager”: Social Implementation and Points of Practice
			4.3.2 Artificial Structures and Green Infrastructure
			4.3.3 Green Infrastructure: The Trump Card in Floodplain Management
		References
	5 Toward Social Infrastructure: Typological Idea for Evaluating Implementation Potential of Green Infrastructure
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Classification Basis for GIs
		5.3 Classification of GI
		5.4 Three Dimensions for the Implementation Potential of GI
			5.4.1 Natural Condition
			5.4.2 Top-Down Regulation
			5.4.3 Bottom-Up Regulation: Residential Demands and Requirements
		5.5 Evaluation of the Potential for Introduction of GI
		5.6 Conclusion and Perspective
		References
Part II Forest Ecosystem
	6 Riparian Forests and Climate Change: Interactive Zone of Green and Blue Infrastructure
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 Riparian Forest as an Interactive Zone of Green and Blue Infrastructure
		6.3 Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Using Riparian Green/Blue Infrastructure
			6.3.1 Maintain River Dynamics Using Artificial Floods
			6.3.2 Maintain Riparian Forests Continuously from Headwater Streams to Lowland Rivers
			6.3.3 Remove or Improve Check Dams for Material Transport and Fish Migration
			6.3.4 Broaden Riparian Forests and Remeander Rivers Where Possible
		6.4 Conclusion
		References
	7 Improvement of the Flood-Reduction Function of Forests Based on Their Interception Evaporation and Surface Storage Capacities
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Rainwater Runoff Mechanisms in Mountainous Forests and Measures to Improve the Flood-Reduction Functions of Forests
		7.3 Runoff Model for Evaluating Flood-Reduction Function
		7.4 Enhancing Interception Evaporation Capacity Through Afforestation
		7.5 Enhancing the Interception Evaporation Capacity and Surface Storage Capacity by Vegetation Conversion
		7.6 Methods and Limitations of Early Enhancement of Flood Mitigation Functions of Forests
		References
	8 Forest Green Infrastructure to Protect Water Quality: A Step-by-Step Guide for Payment Schemes
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Identifying the Problem
		8.3 Role of Opportunity Mapping
		8.4 How Can FGI Help?
		8.5 Importance of Design and Management of FGI
		8.6 Managing Potential Disbenefits
		8.7 Identifying and Assessing Multiple Benefits
		8.8 How to Design a PES Scheme
		8.9 Monitoring, Evaluation and Review
		8.10 Spreading the Word
		References
Part III River and Floodplain Ecosystem (Including Paddy Field and Other Farmlands)
	9 Wetland Paddy Fields as Green Infrastructure Against Flood
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Studied Area
		9.3 Inundation Simulation
			9.3.1 Simulation Model
			9.3.2 Precipitation and River Discharge Setting
		9.4 Results and Discussions
			9.4.1 Model Verification
			9.4.2 Surface Water Flooding
			9.4.3 River Flooding Combined with Surface Water Flooding
			9.4.4 Discussions
		9.5 Concluding Remarks
		References
	10 Change in Floodwater Retention Function of a Paddy Field Due to Cultivation Abandonment in a Depopulating Rural Region in Japan
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Material and Methods
			10.2.1 Study Area
			10.2.2 Two-Dimensional Inundation Analysis
		10.3 Results
		10.4 Discussion
		10.5 Mitigating Flood Risk Using Abandoned Paddy Field Through Wetland Restoration
		10.6 Changes in Water Storage Function with Structural Change and Their Management at Abandoned Paddy Fields
		References
	11 Paddy Fields as Green Infrastructure: Their Ecosystem Services and Threatening Drivers
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Habitat Service: Biodiversity Conservation in Paddy Fields
		11.3 Regulating Service: Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) by Paddy Fields
		11.4 A Strategy to Use and Maintain Paddy Fields as GI
		11.5 Conclusion and Perspective
		References
Part IV Wetland Ecosystem (Including Flood-Control Pond)
	12 Flood-Control Basins as Green Infrastructures: Flood-Risk Reduction, Biodiversity Conservation, and Sustainable Management in Japan
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Flood-Control Basins in Japan
		12.3 Case Study: Biodiversity Conservation in Flood-Control Basins
		12.4 Future Issues for the Construction and Management of Flood-Control Basins
			12.4.1 Social Issues for Construction
			12.4.2 Ecological Issues for Constructions
			12.4.3 Sustainable Management of Flood-Control Basins
			12.4.4 Importance of Multifunctionality
		References
	13 Natural Succession of Wetland Vegetation in a Flood-Control Pond Constructed on Abandoned Farmland
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Materials and Methods
			13.2.1 Experiment Started Before the Construction of Crane Pond: Exploring the Seed Bank Species in Fallow Farmland
			13.2.2 Experiment and Survey Started After the Construction of Crane Pond: Exploring the Vegetation that Regenerated Naturally
		13.3 Species Composition of Buried Seeds in Crane Pond
			13.3.1 Species Identification by a Combination of Morphological and DNA Features
			13.3.2 Species Composition in Each Soil Layer from Different Depths
		13.4 Natural Succession in Crane Pond
			13.4.1 Features of Species Generated from Different Water Depths
			13.4.2 Years from Excavation, Water Depth, and Water Quality Determine the Plant Community
		13.5 Implications for Management of the Flood-Control Basin as GI
			13.5.1 Management of the Supply of Propagules
			13.5.2 Management for Suitable Habitat
		References
	14 Biodiversity Conservation through Various Citizen Activities in a Flood Control Basin
		14.1 Introduction: Floodplain and Flood Control Basin
			14.1.1 Floodplain
			14.1.2 Potential of Flood Control Basins
			14.1.3 Utilization of Land in a Flood Control Basin
		14.2 Asahata Flood Control Basin
			14.2.1 Geomorphological Features and Changes in Land Use
			14.2.2 Activities in the Asahata Flood Control Basin
		14.3 Effect of Activities on Plant Diversity
			14.3.1 Activities
			14.3.2 Vegetation
		14.4 Generality of the Results
		14.5 Activity Redundancy and Conservation Sustainability
		References
Part V Urban and City Ecosystem
	15 Toward Holistic Urban Green Infrastructure Implementation
		15.1 Toward Holistic Urban Green Infrastructure Implementation
		15.2 GI Visions and Frameworks: “Green City, Clean Water” Citywide Green Infrastructure Implementation Frameworks in the City of Philadelphia
		15.3 National-Scale Holistic GI Visions and Approaches: “ABC Water Design Guidelines in Singapore”
		15.4 GI Approaches: Site-Scale GI Implementation
		15.5 Street as GI: “City of Copenhagen's New GI Street Approaches”
		15.6 Kashiwanoha Aqua Terrace: “Closed Retention Pond to GI Open Space”
		15.7 Minami-Machida Grandberry Park: Creating Livable, Sustainable City with Open Spaces
			15.7.1 GI Visions and Frameworks
			15.7.2 Design of Places and Public Engagement
		15.8 Toward Urban Green Infrastructure Implementation: Open Space as GI
		References
	16 Changes in the Use of Green Spaces by Citizens Before and During the First COVID-19 Pandemic: A Big Data Analysis Using Mobile-Tracking GPS Data in Kanazawa, Japan
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Materials and Methods
			16.2.1 Study Area
			16.2.2 The GPS Data and Sample
			16.2.3 Analysis Methods
				16.2.3.1 Behavioral Changes of Kanazawa Citizens
				16.2.3.2 Percentage Increase/Decrease in the Number of Visits to each Green Space and Distance Traveled
		16.3 Results and Discussion
			16.3.1 General Change of Activity Pattern
			16.3.2 Average Number of Outings and Total Time Spent out of the House per Day
			16.3.3 Maximum Distance Traveled per Day
			16.3.4 Number of Outings by Means of Transportation
			16.3.5 Number of Visits by Destination
			16.3.6 Percentage Increase/Decrease in the Number of Visits to each Green Space and Distance Traveled
			16.3.7 Green Space Planning in Kanazawa City in Relation to the Research Hypothesis
		16.4 Conclusions
		References
	17 Land Use Planning as a Green Infrastructure in a Rural Japanese Depopulated Town
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Disaster Risk and Living Environment
		17.3 Classification of Target Area
		17.4 Overlay Analysis
		17.5 Land Use Regulation in the Target Area
		17.6 Conclusion
		References
	18 Toward an Equitable Distribution of Urban Green Spaces for People and Landscapes: An Opportunity for Portland's Green Grid
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 An Abridged Overview of Green Infrastructure in Portland
		18.3 Outcomes and Experiences of Green Infrastructure in Portland
		18.4 Next Steps: Activating the Green Grid
		References
Part VI Coast and Estuary Ecosystem
	19 Effectiveness and Sustainability of Coastal Hybrid Infrastructures for Low-Frequency Large-Scale Disasters: A Case Study of Coastal Disaster Assessment for aComplex Disaster
		19.1 Current Status and Issues of Coastal Protection Measures in Japan
		19.2 Overview of the Study Area
		19.3 Scenario Analysis of Tsunami Hazard by Numerical Simulation
		19.4 Relationship Between Typhoons and the Formation Process of Hybrid Infrastructure
		References
	20 Challenging a Hybrid Between Green and Gray Infrastructure: Coastal Sand-Covered Embankments
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Coastal Ecotones
		20.3 Recovery and Reconstruction from the Disaster of the Great East Japan Earthquake Using Gray Infrastructures
		20.4 Sand-Covered Embankments as Hybrid Infrastructure for Coastal Community Resilience
		20.5 Conclusion
		References
	21 Green Infrastructures in Megacity Jakarta: Current Status and Possibilities of Mangroves for Flood Damage Mitigation
		21.1 Introduction
		21.2 Floods in Jakarta
			21.2.1 Most Vulnerable People
			21.2.2 Causes of Floods
			21.2.3 Current Countermeasures
		21.3 Mangroves in the Gulf of Jakarta
			21.3.1 Recognition of Mangroves as GI in Indonesia
			21.3.2 Functions and Status of Mangroves
			21.3.3 Mangroves in North Jakarta
		21.4 Possibilities of Mangroves for Flood Damage Mitigation
			21.4.1 Hard Measures: Rehabilitation of Mangroves for GI
			21.4.2 Soft Measures: Mangroves as a Disaster Prevention Icon
		References
	22 Implementation of Japanese Blue Carbon Offset CreditingProjects
		22.1 Introduction
		22.2 Carbon Offset Credits
		22.3 Offset Crediting by the Yokohama Blue Carbon Project
			22.3.1 Background
			22.3.2 Calculation Methodology
			22.3.3 Implementation
		22.4 Offset Credit System of Fukuoka City
			22.4.1 Background and Framework
			22.4.2 Carbon Offset Credit Scheme and Implementation
			22.4.3 Funding Scheme and Implementation
		22.5 Offset Crediting Demonstration by the Japanese National Government
			22.5.1 Background
			22.5.2 Characteristics of the Carbon Offset Scheme
				22.5.2.1 Multiple Methodological Options
				22.5.2.2 Continuous Review and Revision
				22.5.2.3 Variable Transaction Prices
			22.5.3 Case Study
		22.6 Keys for Successful Implementation
			22.6.1 Yokohama City
			22.6.2 Fukuoka City
			22.6.3 National Demonstration Project
		22.7 Challenges for Future Blue Carbon Offset Schemes
			22.7.1 Quantification and Reducing Uncertainty
			22.7.2 Considering Emissions from SCEs
			22.7.3 Expanding the Scope of Carbon Offsetting
			22.7.4 Considering Co-benefits
			22.7.5 Monetizing and Crediting Co-benefits
			22.7.6 Challenges to Expanding Credit Trading
		References
Part VII Economic Evaluation
	23 Understanding Preference Differences Among Individuals for the Reduction in Flood Risk by Green Infrastructure
		23.1 Introduction
			23.1.1 Background
			23.1.2 The Purpose of the Study
		23.2 Methods
			23.2.1 Literature Review
			23.2.2 Survey Design
		23.3 Results
			23.3.1 Surveys
			23.3.2 Descriptive Statistics
			23.3.3 The Conditional Logit Result
			23.3.4 The Latent Class Result
		23.4 Discussion
			23.4.1 The General Attitude toward Green Infrastructure
			23.4.2 Interpretation of the Results of the Discrete Choice Experiment
			23.4.3 Several Perspectives toward Consensus Building
		23.5 Concluding Remarks
		Appendix
		References
	24 Assessing Public Preference for Construction of Giant Seawalls Using the Best –Worst Scaling Approach
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Methods
		24.3 Results and Discussion
		24.4 Conclusions
		References
	25 Coastal Community Preferences of Gray, Green, and Hybrid Infrastructure Against Tsunamis: A Case Study of Japan
		25.1 Introduction
		25.2 Survey Design
			25.2.1 Data Collection
			25.2.2 Experimental Design
				25.2.2.1 Review of Economic Evaluation
				25.2.2.2 Choice Experiments
			25.2.3 Attributes and Levels
				25.2.3.1 Additional Seawall Height
				25.2.3.2 Forest Width
				25.2.3.3 Landscape
				25.2.3.4 Recreation
				25.2.3.5 Bird Species
			25.2.4 Profile Design
		25.3 Econometric Models
			25.3.1 Conditional Logit and Mixed Logit Models
			25.3.2 Estimation
			25.3.3 CL Versus ML Model
			25.3.4 WTP
		25.4 Results
		25.5 Discussion and Conclusion
		Appendix
		References
	26 Forest Green Infrastructure and the Carbon Storage and Substitution Benefits of Harvested Wood Products
		26.1 Introduction
		26.2 Carbon Storage in Wood Products
		26.3 Carbon Substitution Benefits of Wood
		26.4 Wider Issues
			26.4.1 Double-Counting
			26.4.2 Rebound Effects
		26.5 Monitoring and Accounting
		26.6 Recommendations
		References
Part VIII Governance
	27 Social System in Collaborative Activities for Conserving Coastal Pine Forest in Karatsu City, Kyusyu, Japan
		27.1 Introduction
		27.2 Study Area
		27.3 Methods
		27.4 Results
			27.4.1 Background of Restoration and Conservation Works
			27.4.2 Activities Managed by NPO KANNE
				27.4.2.1 Conservation Activities in the Pine Forest
				27.4.2.2 Efforts to Increase Participants in Conservation Activity
		27.5 Discussion
		References
	28 Governance for Realizing Multifunctional Floodplain: Flood Control, Agriculture, and Biodiversity in Yolo Bypass Wildlife Area, California, USA
		28.1 Introduction
		28.2 Interview and Inspection
		28.3 Background of Yolo Bypass
		28.4 Yolo Bypass Wildlife Area and its Management
		28.5 Significant Role of Yolo Basin Foundation in Governance Structure
		28.6 Environmental Education by Yolo Basin Foundation
		28.7 Concluding Remarks
		References
	29 Analysis of the Description of the Multifunctionality of Farmland in the Administrative Plans of Local Municipalities
		29.1 Background and Goal of the Study
		29.2 Method
			29.2.1 Content Analysis
			29.2.2 Municipalities for Analysis
			29.2.3 Administrative Plans for Analysis
			29.2.4 Organizing and Classifying the Multiple Functions of Farmland
			29.2.5 Establishment of Criteria for the Reference to the Multifunctionality of Farmland in Administrative Plans
			29.2.6 Analysis of Descriptions According to Municipal Characteristics
		29.3 Results and Discussion
			29.3.1 Description of the Multifunctionality of Farmland in each Administrative Plan
			29.3.2 Tendency of the Description of the Multifunctionality of Farmland According to the Characteristics of Municipalities
			29.3.3 Number of Plans with Descriptions with Respect to Population Size and Farmland Acreage
		29.4 Conclusion: Issues and Future Directions of Green Infrastructure Policies for Farmland
		References
Index