Green Energy: Technology, Economics and Policy

Contents......Page 8
List of Figures......Page 16
List of Tables......Page 18
Preface......Page 22
Foreword......Page 24
List of Contributors......Page 26
Units, Abbreviations and Acronyms, Definitions and Conversion Constants......Page 28
Section 1: Introduction......Page 36
Section 2: Renewable energy technologies......Page 40
1.1 Projected growth of renewables......Page 42
2.1 Introduction......Page 46
2.2 Environmental factors......Page 47
2.4 Wind power markets......Page 48
2.6 Offshore wind power......Page 50
2.7 Prognosis......Page 55
3.1 Introduction......Page 56
3.2 PV technology......Page 57
3.3 Thin films......Page 58
3.5 Research & Development needed......Page 59
3.7 Concentrated Solar Power......Page 61
4.2 Technology......Page 64
4.3 Algal biofuels......Page 67
4.4 Biomass wastes......Page 69
4.5 Costs......Page 70
4.7 Landfill Gas......Page 71
4.8 Prognosis......Page 73
5.1 Introduction......Page 74
5.2 \"Storage\" Projects......Page 75
5.3 Pumped storage hydroelectricity......Page 77
5.4 \"In-river\" hydroelectric projects......Page 78
6.1 Introduction......Page 80
6.3 Resources......Page 81
6.4 Costs......Page 82
6.5 Research & Development......Page 83
7.1 Introduction......Page 84
7.3 Rance (France) and Severn (UK) tidal barrages......Page 85
7.4 Research & Development and Costs......Page 86
8.2 Potentials of RETs......Page 88
8.3 Measuring policy effectiveness and efficiency......Page 93
8.4 Overview of support schemes......Page 94
8.5 Public–private partnership......Page 95
8.6 An Integrated Strategy for the deployment of RETs......Page 97
References......Page 98
Section 3: Supply-side energy technologies......Page 100
9.1 Introduction......Page 102
9.2 Efficiency improvement in power generation......Page 105
9.3 Fuel switching in fossil fuel power plants......Page 106
9.4 Capture of CO2......Page 108
9.5 Compression of CO2......Page 110
9.6 Transport of CO2 in CCS......Page 111
9.7 Storage of CO2......Page 113
10.1.1 Future projections......Page 116
10.1.2 Nuclear power and green energies......Page 118
10.2.1 Fission chain reaction......Page 119
10.2.2 Natural fission reactors......Page 120
10.2.3 Nuclear reactors......Page 121
10.3 Sustainable nuclear fuel cycle options......Page 125
10.3.1 Thorium fuel cycle......Page 126
10.3.2 Uranium resources and production......Page 127
10.3.3 Thorium resources......Page 130
10.3.4 Uranium conversion, enrichment and fuel fabrica......Page 131
10.3.5 Spent fuel management and reprocessing......Page 132
10.4.1 Generation IV reactors......Page 133
10.4.3 Fusion reactors......Page 134
10.5 Nuclear economics......Page 135
10.6 Nuclear safety......Page 137
10.7 Disposal of nuclear wastes......Page 140
11.1 Introduction......Page 144
11.2 Biomass gasification......Page 145
11.2.1 Biomass......Page 146
11.2.2 Gasification......Page 147
11.2.3 Syngas......Page 149
11.2.4 Fischer–Tropsch process......Page 150
11.2.5 Biomass Integrated-gasifier/gas turbine combined cycle......Page 151
11.3 Marine energy......Page 152
11.3.1 Marine current power......Page 153
11.3.2 Ocean thermal energy......Page 155
11.3.3 Salinity gradient power......Page 158
11.3.4 Tidal power......Page 159
11.3.5 Wave power......Page 161
11.3.6 Damless hydro......Page 165
11.4 Enhanced Geothermal Systems......Page 166
11.4.1 Technical considerations......Page 167
11.4.2 Economic considerations......Page 170
11.4.4 Induced seismicity......Page 171
12.1 Introduction......Page 172
12.2 Comparative advantages......Page 173
12.3 Problems with algal biofuels......Page 174
12.4.1 Cultivation of algae......Page 175
12.4.3 Extraction of various energy products from algae......Page 176
References......Page 179
Section 4: Demand-side energy technologies......Page 184
13.1 Industrial energy use and CO2 emissions profile......Page 186
13.2 Iron and steel......Page 189
13.3 Non-metallic minerals......Page 192
13.4 Chemicals and petrochemicals......Page 194
13.5 Pulp and Paper......Page 197
13.6 Non-ferrous metals......Page 199
13.7 Research & Development, Demonstration and Deployment......Page 200
14.1 Introduction......Page 204
14.1.1 The building shell, heating and cooling......Page 207
14.1.2 Windows......Page 208
14.1.4 Cooling systems: air conditioning......Page 209
14.1.6 Lighting......Page 210
14.1.7 Heat pumps......Page 211
14.1.8 Solar thermal heating......Page 213
14.2 Passive houses and zero-energy buildings......Page 214
14.3 Bioenergy technologies......Page 215
14.4 Research & Development, Demonstration and Deployment......Page 217
15.1 Overview......Page 218
15.2 Alternative fuels......Page 220
15.2.1 Biofuels for transport......Page 221
15.2.3 Hydrogen in transport......Page 222
15.3 Light-duty vehicles......Page 223
15.4 Trucking and freight movement......Page 228
15.5 Aviation......Page 230
15.6 Maritime transport......Page 232
15.7 Research & Development breaktroughs required for technologies in transport......Page 234
16.1 Overview......Page 236
16.2 Transmission Technologies......Page 237
16.3 Distribution......Page 238
16.4 Electricity Storage Systems......Page 239
16.5 Demand Response......Page 241
16.6 \"Smart\" Grid application......Page 242
16.6.1 Electricity Pricing......Page 244
16.6.2 Electricity grid and peak demand response......Page 245
16.6.4 Technologies for demand reduction......Page 246
References......Page 247
Section 5: Making green energy competitive......Page 250
17.1 Why low-carbon energy technologies?......Page 252
17.2 Emission reductions and Research Development & Demonstration investment......Page 254
17.3 Innovation Systems in Technology Development......Page 255
17.4 Research, development and Demonstration in the energy sector......Page 258
17.4.2 Fossil Fuel Power......Page 259
17.4.7 Transport – Fuels......Page 260
17.5 Research, development and Demonstration policies......Page 261
18.1 Introduction......Page 264
18.2 Technology Learning Curves......Page 265
18.3 Commercialization of power generation technologies......Page 267
18.4 Deployment costs......Page 268
18.5 Regional deployment of key power generation technologies......Page 269
18.6 Barriers to technology diffusion......Page 270
18.8 Investment issues......Page 271
19.1 Matrix of Economic Evaluation Measures......Page 274
19.2 Total Life-Cycle Cost (TLCC)......Page 276
19.3 Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)......Page 277
19.4 Energy Efficiency of Renewable Energy Systems......Page 279
19.5 Energy taxation......Page 285
19.7 Depreciation......Page 286
20.1 Introduction......Page 290
20.2 Modeling electricity markets......Page 292
20.3 Average costs and marginal costs......Page 293
20.4 Load cycle......Page 294
20.5 Energy economics......Page 295
20.6 Levelized costs......Page 296
20.7 Limit pricing model......Page 297
20.8 Pollution as a negative externality......Page 298
20.9 Energy futures and options markets......Page 300
20.10 Energy and Information technology......Page 301
21.1 Why renewables?......Page 304
21.2 Market-based strategies to promote green energies......Page 307
21.3.1 The Dutch Green Electricity programme......Page 309
21.3.2 The USA Green Electricity Market......Page 310
21.3.3 U.K. Green Electricity Market......Page 312
References......Page 313
Section 6: A green new deal......Page 316
22.2 Smart electricity grid......Page 318
22.3 Decarbonising electricity production......Page 321
22.4 Decarbonising transport......Page 324
22.5 Decarbonising buildings......Page 325
22.6 Decarbonising industry......Page 326
22.7 Conclusion......Page 327
23.1.1 The challenges in the energy sector......Page 328
23.1.3 Green Energy......Page 329
23.2 Greening the economy: the challenge......Page 330
23.2.1 Carbon Credits: Are these measures enough?......Page 331
23.3 Financial stimuli......Page 332
23.4 Research and development......Page 334
23.5 Infrastructure development......Page 336
23.6 Employment generation......Page 337
23.7 Social security......Page 339
23.8 Education and outreach......Page 340
23.9 Conclusion......Page 341
24.1 Introduction......Page 344
24.2 Climate change challenge and poverty......Page 345
24.3 Poverty and environment......Page 346
24.4 Eradicating poverty......Page 348
24.5 Energy for Development......Page 349
24.6 Integrating poverty eradication, environment protection and energy security......Page 350
24.7 Conclusion......Page 352
References......Page 353
Section 7: Overview and integration......Page 358