Green Energy to Sustainability

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 9
About the Editors......Page 23
List of Contributors......Page 27
Foreword......Page 33
Preface......Page 35
Part I Structure of the Energy Business......Page 41
  1.1 Historical Context and Relationship Between Energy and Development......Page 43
  1.2 Conceptual Framework for Pathways of Energy Use......Page 46
  1.3 World Population Trends and Prospects......Page 47
  1.4 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Economic Growth......Page 48
  1.5 Global Energy Development......Page 51
  1.6 Global Emissions of Greenhouse Gases......Page 54
   1.7.1 Per Capita Energy and Growth......Page 56
   1.7.2 Energy Demand and Economic Production......Page 57
    1.7.2.1 Energy as a Production Factor......Page 58
    1.7.2.2 Empirical Results......Page 59
   1.7.3 Emission‐Related Factors......Page 63
   1.7.4 Energy‐Related Impacts......Page 65
   1.7.5 Relative Comparison of the Kaya Factors......Page 66
  1.8 Development of Energy Investment......Page 68
   1.9.1 Targets and Pathways of Climate Policy......Page 71
   1.9.2 Strategies of Implementation......Page 73
   1.9.3 Integrated Assessment and Decision‐Making in Transition Processes......Page 75
  1.10 Perspectives......Page 77
  References......Page 78
  2.1 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions by Japan......Page 85
  2.2 Energy Dependence......Page 86
  2.3 The Energy Policy of Japan......Page 88
  2.4 Paris Agreement......Page 89
  2.6 Improvement in Energy Efficiency......Page 90
  2.9 Production and Use of Bioethanol in Japan......Page 91
  2.12 Contributions of the Japanese Government to Fundamental Research and Development......Page 92
  References......Page 93
  3.1 Introduction......Page 97
   3.2.1 Current Status......Page 98
   3.2.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges......Page 100
   3.2.3 Perspectives on South America......Page 101
   3.3.1 Current Status......Page 102
   3.3.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges......Page 104
   3.3.3 Perspectives on Africa......Page 105
   3.4.1 Current Status......Page 106
   3.4.2 Commercial Deployment and Challenges......Page 107
   3.5.1 Current Status......Page 109
   3.5.3 Perspectives on China......Page 111
  References......Page 112
  4.1 Introduction......Page 117
  4.2 Sunlight and Photosynthesis......Page 118
  4.3 Photovoltaic Devices......Page 119
  4.4 Overview of Solar Photovoltaic Applications......Page 122
  4.5 Perspectives......Page 123
  References......Page 124
  5.1 Introduction......Page 125
   5.2.1 Driving Force of Growing Biojet Fuel Opportunities......Page 126
   5.2.2 Biojet Fuel Types and Specifications......Page 128
  5.3 Assessment of Environmental Policy and Economic Factors Affecting the Aviation Industry......Page 133
   5.3.1 Momentum Building of International Carbon Emission Regulations......Page 134
   5.3.2 Increasing Activities to Address the Carbon Emission Control......Page 135
   5.3.3 New Technologies and Aviation Operation Improvement......Page 137
   5.4.1 Alternative Jet Fuel Deployment and Use......Page 138
  5.5 Challenges of Future Biojet Fuel Development......Page 140
  5.6 Perspectives......Page 144
  References......Page 145
  6.1 Introduction......Page 151
   6.2.2 Production and Economic Trends......Page 152
   6.2.3 Key Players......Page 153
    6.3.1.2 Automobile Operation GHG Emissions......Page 154
   6.3.2 TRI‐Reported Chemical Waste Management......Page 155
    6.3.2.1 US EPA Toxics Release Inventory......Page 156
    6.3.2.2 Trends in TRI‐Reported Chemical Waste Management......Page 157
    6.3.2.4 Trends in Releases......Page 159
    6.3.2.5 Automotive Manufacturing vs. All Other Manufacturing Sectors......Page 160
   6.4.1 Sustainability Trends in Automotive Manufacturing......Page 161
    6.4.1.2 Eco‐Efficiency......Page 162
    6.4.1.3 Process and Technology Modifications......Page 163
    6.4.1.4 Safer, Environmentally Friendly Alternative Materials......Page 164
    6.4.1.7 Fluids and Solvents......Page 165
   6.4.2 Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI......Page 166
    6.4.2.3 Barriers to Source Reduction......Page 169
   6.5.1 Summary......Page 171
   6.5.2 Potential Pollution Prevention Opportunities......Page 173
  References......Page 174
  7.2 Overview of Global Energy Demand......Page 177
  7.3 Petroleum Demand and Petroleum Products for Potential Replacement by Bioproducts......Page 180
  7.4 Role of Biofuels and Biobased Chemicals in Renewable Energy Demand......Page 183
  7.5 Achieving Petroleum Replacement with Biobased Fuels and Chemicals......Page 185
  7.6 Projections of Global Demand for Biobased Fuels and Chemicals......Page 189
  7.8 Projection of Energy‐Related CO2 Emissions With or Without Remediation Technology......Page 191
  7.9 Government Impact on Demand for Biofuels and Biobased Chemicals......Page 192
  7.10 Perspectives......Page 194
  References......Page 195
Part II Chemicals and Transportation Fuels from Biomass......Page 197
  8.1 Introduction......Page 199
   8.2.1 Glycolic Acid......Page 201
   8.3.2 Pyruvic Acid......Page 203
   8.4.1 Butyric Acid......Page 206
   8.4.2 Succinic Acid......Page 207
   8.4.4 Putrescine......Page 208
   8.5.1 Itaconic Acid......Page 209
   8.5.2 Xylitol......Page 210
   8.6.1 Adipic Acid......Page 211
   8.6.2 Muconic Acid......Page 212
   8.6.4 Glucaric Acid......Page 213
  8.7 Perspectives......Page 214
  References......Page 215
  9.1 Introduction......Page 225
  9.2 Biofuels......Page 226
    9.2.1.2 Bioethanol......Page 227
   9.2.2 Feedstock of Biofuel Production Based on Plants......Page 228
    9.2.2.2 Aquatic Plants – Algae......Page 230
  9.3 Biofuels from Microalgae and Seaweeds......Page 231
   9.3.2 Biofuels from Macroalgae (i.e. Seaweeds)......Page 232
   9.3.3 Advantages of Algae as the Feedstock of Biofuels......Page 233
   9.4.1 Harvesting and Dewatering......Page 235
   9.4.2 Extraction Approaches......Page 236
   9.4.3 Conversion to Biofuels......Page 238
   9.5.1 Role of Biofuels in Energy Supply and Environmental Protection......Page 240
   9.5.2 Biofuel Demand and Supporting Policies......Page 241
    9.5.3.1 Optimization of Cultivation Processes......Page 242
    9.5.3.4 Combining Alga‐Based Biofuel Production with Environment Protection......Page 244
  9.6 Progresses in the Commercial Production of Alga‐Based Biofuels......Page 245
  9.7 Perspectives......Page 249
  References......Page 250
  10.1 Introduction......Page 259
  10.2 Zymomonas mobilis......Page 262
  10.3 Escherichia coli......Page 263
  10.5 Inhibitor‐Tolerant Ethanologenic E. coli......Page 267
  10.6 Engineering Bacterial Biocatalysts Other than E. coli for the Production of Ethanol Using the PDC/ADH Pathway......Page 269
  10.7 Ethanol Production by Non‐PDC Pathways......Page 270
  10.9 Other Metabolic Pathways that Contribute to Ethanol Production......Page 271
  Acknowledgements......Page 272
  References......Page 273
  11.1 Introduction......Page 279
   11.2.1 Micro‐organisms......Page 281
   11.2.2 Novel Substrates......Page 283
   11.2.3 Biomass Pretreatment......Page 284
   11.2.6 Combining Unit Operations and Use of By‐products......Page 285
   11.3.1 Techno‐economic Studies......Page 286
    11.3.2.2 ABE Plant......Page 291
    11.3.2.3 Approach and Assumptions for the Economic Analysis......Page 295
    11.3.2.4 Investment Cost and Energy Efficiency of the ABE Plant......Page 296
    11.3.2.5 Minimum Butanol Selling Price......Page 299
    11.3.2.6 Value Creation to Pulp Mills......Page 302
  Acknowledgements......Page 303
  References......Page 304
   12.1.1 Technological Aspects......Page 309
   12.1.2 Commercialization of Cellulosic Ethanol......Page 311
   12.2.1 Analysis Comparing Costs of Producing Ethanol from Corn Starch and Lignocellulosic Feedstocks......Page 312
   12.2.2 Cost Analysis by Tao et al. for Cellulosic Ethanol......Page 314
  12.3 Technological Opportunities to Reduce Cellulosic Ethanol Production Costs......Page 317
  12.4 Perspectives: Approaches to Optimize the Use of Lignocellulosic and Waste Materials as Feedstocks......Page 319
  References......Page 321
  13.1 Introduction......Page 323
  13.2 Glycosyl Hydrolases: General Structure and Mechanism......Page 326
   13.2.1 Classification of GH......Page 327
  13.3 The Cellulase Enzyme System......Page 329
   13.3.2 Cellobiohydrolases......Page 330
   13.3.3 Beta‐Glucosidases......Page 331
   13.3.4 Polysaccharide Monooxygenases and Cellobiose Dehydrogenases......Page 332
   13.3.5 Cellulases Synergy and Kinetics......Page 333
  13.4 The Hemicellulase Enzyme System......Page 335
   13.4.1 Endo‐Xylanases and Beta‐Xylosidases......Page 336
   13.4.3 Other Hemicellulases and Accessory Enzymes......Page 337
   13.4.4 Hemicellulases and Complete Hydrolysis......Page 338
   13.5.1 Diversity of Cellulolytic Microorganisms and Lifestyles......Page 339
   13.5.2 Fungi and Their Arsenal for Biomass Hydrolysis......Page 340
   13.5.3 Bacteria and Their Cellulolytic Machinery......Page 342
    13.5.3.1 The C. thermocellum Cellulosome......Page 343
    13.5.3.2 Enzyme‐Microbe Synergy......Page 345
    13.5.3.3 Mechanisms of Cell Adhesion......Page 347
  13.6 Perspectives......Page 348
  References......Page 349
  14.1 Introduction......Page 367
  14.2 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)......Page 368
  14.4 Developing a Life Cycle Assessment......Page 369
  14.5 Scope of the Life Cycle Assessment: Attributional verses Consequential......Page 371
  14.7 Feedstocks for Biofuels......Page 372
  14.8 Conversion of Feedstock......Page 373
   14.8.2 Thermochemical Processes......Page 374
  14.10 Using LCA as a Tool to Assess GHG Emissions and Other Impacts Associated with Bioethanol Production and Supply......Page 375
  14.11 Discussion on the Suitability of LCA......Page 376
  14.12 Perspectives: Moving Forward with the LCA Concept......Page 388
  References......Page 389
Part III Hydrogen and Methane......Page 395
  15.1 Introduction......Page 397
    15.2.1.2 Mixed Cultures and Inoculum Pre‐treatments......Page 398
    15.2.1.3 Co‐cultures Used for Hydrogen Production......Page 399
   15.2.2 Operational Factors Influencing Hydrogen Production......Page 400
   15.2.3 Bioreactors Used for Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production......Page 402
   15.2.4 Substrates Used for Dark Fermentative Hydrogen Production......Page 406
   15.4.1 Hydrogen Production by Dark and Photofermentation in Co‐culture......Page 410
   15.4.2 Two‐Stage Dark and Photo‐fermentative Hydrogen Production......Page 413
   15.4.3 Hydrogen Production by Multiple Stages (Cellulolytic, Dark Fermentative, and Phototrophic Bacteria)......Page 417
  15.5 Perspectives......Page 419
   15.5.1 Hydrogen Production Potential and Market Barriers......Page 420
   15.5.2 Hydrogen Generation Market......Page 421
   15.5.3 Microbial Hydrogen Production: Targets and Future Prospects......Page 422
  References......Page 423
  16.1 Introduction......Page 435
   16.2.1 Waste Activated Sludge......Page 437
   16.2.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass......Page 438
   16.2.3 Algae......Page 441
   16.2.4 Food Waste......Page 442
   16.2.6 Livestock Manure (Chicken, Pig and Swine Manure)......Page 443
   16.3.1 Acidic Pretreatment......Page 444
   16.3.2 Alkali Pretreatment......Page 445
   16.3.3 Ultrasonication......Page 449
   16.3.4 Microwave Irradiation......Page 450
   16.3.5 Ozonation......Page 451
   16.3.7 Enzymatic Pre‐treatment......Page 452
   16.4.1 China......Page 453
   16.4.3 Malaysia......Page 454
   16.4.5 Thailand......Page 455
  References......Page 456
  17.1 Importance of Hydrogen Production......Page 465
  17.2 Hydrogen Producing Microorganisms......Page 467
  17.3 Hydrogen Producing Algae (Macro–Micro) Species......Page 468
   17.4.1 Biohydrogen Production......Page 471
   17.4.2 Fermentation System for Hydrogen Production......Page 472
  17.5 Technologies (Solar Algae Fuel Cell/Microbial Fuel Cell)......Page 473
  17.6 Possibility of Commercial Production of Hydrogen......Page 474
  17.7 Perspectives and Future Implications of Algae in Biotechnology......Page 477
  References......Page 478
  18.1 Introduction......Page 487
  18.2 Anaerobic Digestion......Page 488
  18.3 Mechanism of Anaerobic Digestion......Page 489
   18.3.1 Theoretical Methane Biogas Production......Page 492
   18.4.2 Effect of pH......Page 495
  18.5 Strategies Applied to Enhance Microalgae Methane Biogas Production......Page 496
   18.5.2 Co‐Digestion Process......Page 497
  18.6 Utilization of Methane Biogas as a Renewable Fuel......Page 498
  References......Page 499
Part IV Perspectives......Page 505
  19.1 Introduction......Page 507
   19.2.1 Flexibility......Page 508
    19.2.1.2 Whole Crop Biorefinery......Page 509
   19.2.2 Feedstock......Page 510
  19.3 Biorefinery Platforms......Page 511
  19.4 Integrated Biorefineries......Page 512
   19.5.1 Four Carbon 1,4‐Diacids......Page 515
   19.5.2 2,5‐Furandicarboxylic Acid (FDA) and 5‐Hydroximethilfurfural (HMF)......Page 516
   19.5.5 Glucaric Acid......Page 517
   19.5.9 3‐Hydroxybutyrolactone (HBL)......Page 518
   19.5.14 Biohydrocarbons......Page 519
  19.6 Integrating Ethanol and Biodiesel Refineries......Page 520
  19.7 Economical Aspects......Page 522
  References......Page 524
  20.1 Introduction......Page 529
  20.2 Major Lignocellulosic Industrial Crops......Page 532
    20.2.1.2 Fibre and Oil Crops......Page 533
    20.2.2.1 Herbaceous Biomass Crops......Page 534
    20.2.2.2 Woody Crops......Page 537
  20.3 Social, Economic and Environmental Aspects in Sustainability Criteria......Page 538
   20.3.1 Annual versus Perennial Options......Page 539
   20.3.2 Soil Issues......Page 540
   20.3.3 Biodiversity Issues......Page 541
  20.4 Processing Alternatives for Lignocellulosic Bioenergy Crops......Page 542
  20.5 Filling the Gap: From Farm to Industry......Page 543
  20.6 Perspectives......Page 546
  References......Page 548
  21.1 Introduction......Page 555
  21.2 Types of Industrial Waste for Biofuel Production......Page 556
   21.3.1 Ethanol and Its Market......Page 557
   21.3.3 Pretreatment......Page 558
   21.3.4 Enzymatic Hydrolysis......Page 559
   21.3.5 Fermentation......Page 560
   21.3.6 Ethanol Production from Other Industrial Wastes......Page 562
   21.4.1 Butanol and Its Market......Page 563
   21.4.2 Butanol Production from Food Waste......Page 564
   21.4.4 Economic Analysis of Butanol Production......Page 566
   21.5.1 Biodiesel and Its Market......Page 567
   21.5.2 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production......Page 568
   21.5.4 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Acid Catalysts......Page 569
   21.5.5 Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil with Acid and Alkali Catalysts......Page 570
  References......Page 571
  22.1 Introduction......Page 579
  22.2 Overview of the Food Manufacturing Industry......Page 580
   22.2.1 Production and Economic Trends......Page 582
  22.3 Chemicals and Chemical Wastes in the Food Manufacturing Industry......Page 585
   22.3.2 Conventional Water Pollutants......Page 586
   22.3.3 Refrigerants......Page 587
   22.3.5 Trends in TRI‐Reported Chemical Waste Management......Page 588
    22.3.5.1 Trends in Releases......Page 592
   22.4.1 Sustainability Trends in Food Manufacturing......Page 594
    22.4.1.1 Corporate Sustainability Reports......Page 595
    22.4.2.1 Energy Efficiency......Page 596
    22.4.2.2 Chemical Substitutes......Page 597
    22.4.3.2 Food Waste......Page 598
   22.4.4 Wastewater Treatment......Page 599
   22.4.5 Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI......Page 600
    22.4.5.2 TRI Pollution Prevention Analysis – Effectiveness of Source Reduction Activities......Page 601
    22.4.5.4 Summary of Pollution Prevention Activities Reported to TRI......Page 602
  22.5 Perspectives......Page 603
  References......Page 604
   23.1.1 Recovery from 2008 Financial Crisis and Global Economic Trends......Page 609
   23.1.2 Financial Conditions at Global Level......Page 610
   23.2.2 Renewable Ethanol Industry from Grain and Cellulosic Feedstocks......Page 612
   23.2.3 Ethanol Biofuels Industry – Co‐products......Page 615
   23.2.4 Ethanol Biofuels Industry – Cost and Economic Factors......Page 616
   23.3.1 Emergence of Bio‐Based Industry......Page 617
   23.3.2 Bio‐Based Industry – Policy Landscape and Competitiveness......Page 618
   23.4.1 Financing Challenges for Firms in the New Bioeconomy......Page 619
   23.4.2 The Financing of Various Steps in the Bio‐Based Processes......Page 621
  23.5 Perspectives and Sustainable Financing Approach – Change in Wall Street Mindset in the Valuation of Bio‐Based Industries......Page 623
  Acknowledgements......Page 624
  References......Page 625
   24.2.1 What Is CSR?......Page 627
    24.2.3.1 The Four Eras of Early CSR......Page 629
    24.2.3.2 The Impact of Environmental Disasters and Globalization in the 1980s to 2000s......Page 632
    24.2.3.3 From the 2000s to Today: The Further Evolution of CSR and its Relationship to Brand Management......Page 633
   24.3.1 What Is Sustainability and how Did the Phrase Come about?......Page 637
   24.3.3 CSR and Corporate Sustainability Are Not the Same Thing......Page 638
   24.3.4 Corporate Sustainability – The Future of CSR......Page 640
  24.4 Perspectives......Page 643
   24.4.1 Paradigm Shift in Corporate Sustainability Thinking......Page 644
   24.4.2 Three Key Capabilities Needed to Support Corporate Sustainability......Page 645
  References......Page 647
  25.1 Introduction: Energy and Sustainability......Page 653
  25.2 Transportation in the Twenty‐First Century: A Carbon Tax Story......Page 662
  25.3 Cities of Change......Page 667
  25.4 The Chemical Industry Revisited......Page 669
  25.5 Paradigm Changes in Modes of Consumption......Page 673
  25.6 International Action for Curbing the Pollution of the Atmosphere Commons: The Case of CFCs and the Ozone Layer......Page 674
  25.7 Social Activism as an Engine of Change: Requiem for a Wonderful World......Page 675
  25.8 Perspectives: A Brave New World......Page 676
  References......Page 679
Index......Page 689
EULA......Page 705