Gorilla Pathology and Health

Gorilla Pathology and Health
Copyright
Dedication
Quotations
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Authors
About the Contributors
List of Abbreviations
1 The Genus Gorilla – Morphology, Anatomy and the Path to Pathology
	Introduction
	Primate and Comparative Anatomy
	The Current Status of Anatomy
	Terminology
	Conclusions
2 The Growth of Studies on Primate Pathology
	Introduction – The Growth of Pathology
	Studies on the Pathology of Primates
	African Studies
	The Importance of Comparative Pathology
	Primates in Biomedical Research
	Studies on Microscopic Anatomy and Cellular Pathology
	The Continuing Relevance of Studies on Pathology
	The Advantages and Dangers of Extrapolation
	Access to Data
	The Relevance of Pathology to Health
3 Infectious Disease and Host Responses
	Introduction
	Disease and Death in Gorillas
	The Aetiology of Disease
	What Is ‘Pathology’?
	Understanding Host Responses – A Comparative Approach
	Endogenous Factors Influencing Host Responses
	Discussion of Infectious and Noninfectious Diseases
		Infectious Conditions
	Bacteria
	Viruses
		Retroviruses
		Filoviruses
		Poxviruses
	Parasites
	Microbiota, Microbiome and Normal Flora
	Emerging Diseases
4 Noninfectious Disease and Host Responses
	Introduction – Noninfectious Conditions
	Trauma – Causes and Pathogenesis
	Specific Responses – Trauma
	Fighting
	Infected Wounds
	Attacks on Humans
	Wounds – General
	Ageing of Wounds
	Healing and Regeneration
	Sepsis
	Snares
	Firearms, Exposure to Blasts, Explosions and Unexploded Ordnance
	Predation
	Exposure to Temperature Changes
	Stress and Stressors
5 Methods of Investigation – Observation, Clinical Examination and Health Monitoring
	Introduction
	Surveillance of Syndromes
	Clinical Work With Gorillas
	The Importance of Observation
	Indicators of Ill Health
	Restraint and Handling
	Clinical Examination
	Anaesthesia
	Medical and Surgical Treatment
	The Importance of Multidisciplinary Collaboration
	Health Monitoring of Gorillas
	Why Is Health Monitoring Important?
	Health Monitoring Techniques
	Some Conclusions
6 Methods of Investigation – Postmortem Examination
	Introduction
	The Nature and Role of the Postmortem Examination
	Before Embarking on a Necropsy
	Personnel and Training
	Interdisciplinary Studies
	Access to Material for Postmortem Examination
	Postmortem Procedures
	Equipment
	Recording of Findings
	Performance
	External Examination and Sampling
	Internal Examination and Sampling
	Description of Lesions
	Forensic Postmortem Examinations
	Postmortem Changes and Determination of Time of Death/PMI
	Causes of Death Diagnosis
7 Methods of Investigation – Sampling and Laboratory Tests
	Introduction
	Sampling
	Methods
		Swabs
		Saliva
		Faeces
		Hair
		Urine
		DNA and Other Molecular Techniques
		Blood
		Biochemistry
		Cytology
		Biopsies
		Histology
		Reading of Slides
		Microbiology
		Serology
		Additional Tests
	Environmental testing
	Quality Control
	Recording and Reporting of Findings
	Personnel and Equipment
	Safety in Laboratory Work
	Storage of Samples and Reference Collections
8 Nonspecific Pathology
	Introduction
	General Considerations in Pathology, Not Related to Organ Systems
	Age-Related Changes
	Developmental Abnormalities
	Genetic Anomalies
	Behavioural Pathology
	Aggression
	Effects of Capture, Transportation and Captivity
	Welfare
	Pain
	Neoplasia
	Poisoning
9 Skin and Integument
	Introduction
	Biology of the Skin
	Investigative Methods
		Sampling
		Laboratory Tests
	Diseases and Pathology of the Skin – General
	Noninfectious Causes
	Infectious Causes
	Ectoparasites
		Bacteria
		Fungi
		Viruses
	Diseases of Uncertain Aetiology
	Conclusions
10 Respiratory and Cardiovascular Systems
	Introduction
	Respiratory System
		Respiratory Pathology
		Infectious Diseases
	Lung Parasites
		Noninfectious Diseases
	Investigation of the Respiratory Tract
	Cardiovascular System
	Investigation of the Cardiovascular System
	Cardiovascular Disease
	Research on Heart Disease in Great Apes, Including Gorillas
	Pathogenesis of Cardiovascular Disease
	Other Pathology of the Vascular System
		Shock
11 Alimentary Tract and Associated Organs
	Introduction
	Oral Cavity
		Teeth
	Dental Disease and Pathology
	Some Specific Conditions and Their Pathogenesis
		Tartar and Calculus
		Periodontal Disease
		Dental Caries
		Enamel Hypoplasia
		Other Pathology
		Effects of Ageing
		Halitosis
		The Ongoing Importance of Studies on Teeth
	The Gastrointestinal Tract
		Investigation of the GIT
		Gut Flora and Fauna
		Parasites
		Pathology and Pathogenesis
		Colitis
		Assessment of Faeces
		Diet, Feeding and Disease
		Inanition, Starvation and Cachexia
		Obesity
		Condition
		Regurgitation and Reingestion
		Coprophagy
		Malabsorption
		Cystic Fibrosis
	Investigation of the Liver
	Pathology and Pathogenesis of Hepatic Disorders
	Investigation of the Biliary System
	Investigation of the Exocrine Pancreas
12 Lymphoreticular and Haemopoietic Systems and Allergic Conditions
	Introduction
	The Lymphoreticular System
	Immunity
	Immunological Disorders
	Hypersensitivities and Allergies
	Immunodeficiency
	Blood and Bone Marrow
	Blood Parasites
	Neoplasia
13 Urinary and Reproductive Systems
	Introduction
	Urinary System
		Urinary Disease and Pathology
		Sampling Techniques
		Methods of Investigation
		Specific Considerations
	Reproductive System
		Mammary Gland
		Reproductive Physiology
		Copulation
		Pregnancy
		Parturition
		Fetal and Placental Pathology
		Placenta
		Neonatal Pathology and Health
		Orphans and Hand-Rearing
		Infanticide
		Developmental Abnormalities
		Female Reproductive Pathology
		Male Reproductive Pathology
		Birth Control and Contraception
14 Musculoskeletal System
	Introduction
	Movement Disorders
	The Pathology of Bone
	The Importance of the Skeleton
	Skull
	Vertebral Column
	Joints
	Investigation of Bones
		Basic Rules
	Skeletal Disease and Pathology
		Infectious Diseases of Bones
		Developmental Diseases of Bones
	Fractures and Their Repair
	Specific Diagnosis of Diseases of the Skeleton
		Infectious Disease
		Noninfectious Disease
		Metabolic Bone Disease
	Muscle
	Connective Tissue
	Adipose Tissue
15 Nervous System and Special Senses
	Introduction
	Psychological Studies on Gorillas
	Studies on the Brain of Gorillas
	Investigation of the Nervous System
	Pathology and Diseases of the Nervous System
		Mental Disorders
		Peripheral Nerves
	The Special Senses
		The Eye
		The Nose
		The Ear
16 Endocrinological and Associated Conditions
	Introduction
	The Endocrine System
		Pituitary
		Thyroid
		Parathyroid
		Adrenal
		Pancreas
		Pineal
	Sleep
	Stress
17 Field Studies in Pathology and Health Monitoring
	Introduction
	Pre-release Health Considerations for Gorillas
		Hazard Identification
		Risk Assessment
		Risk Management
		Testing for Pathogens and Disease
		Preventive Healthcare
			Vaccination
			Parasiticides
	Quarantine
		Budgets
		Risk Communication
	Setting-Up Long-Term Health Monitoring Systems for Mountain Gorillas Using a One Health Approach
		Assessment of Disease Risks to Gorillas
		Building a Gorilla Research Clinic for Analysis of Pathogens From Wildlife and Domestic Animals
		Linking With Local Human Health Centres Through Comparative Disease Investigations
		Linking With Local Human Health Centres Through Community-Based Health Promotion
		Conclusion: Impact on Conservation
		Future Recommendations for Strengthening the Programme
	Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Helminths of Habituated Nyakagezi Mountain Gorilla Group in Mgahinga Gorilla National Park
		Identification of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Helminths
		Prevalence and Means
		Discussion
	Working With Great Apes During an Ebola Outbreak
		Great Apes and Ebola
		Realities of Working at a Great Ape Sanctuary During a Major EVD Outbreak
		Precautions at Work
		Precautions Outside the Sanctuary
		Challenges During the Ebolavirus Disease Outbreak
		Precautions Taken to Prevent Ebolavirus Disease Affecting the Sanctuary
18 Legal Considerations
	Introduction
	General
		Definition of ‘Wild’
		IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Status
		Nomenclature
		Legislation
	Free-Living Gorillas
		General
		International Legislation
			Convention on Migratory Species
			CITES
			Convention on Biological Diversity
			Other International Environmental Law
		National Legislation
			Access to Gorillas
			Law Enforcement
	Gorillas in Captivity
		General
		Authorisation to Keep Gorillas
		Gorillas in Research
		Animal Welfare
		Responsibility for Damage Caused by Captive Gorillas
	Other Relevant Law
		Occupational Health and Safety
		Movement of Gorillas and Samples
		Law Regulating the Veterinary Profession
		Veterinary Medicines
		Permission, Reference Material, Data, Intellectual Property and Copyright
19 Pathology, Health and Conservation – The Way Forward
	Introduction
	Knowledge of the Genus and Its Biology
	Threats to Survival
	The Implications and Importance of Studies on Pathology and Health
	Advances in Health Care
	Collaboration and Sharing of Information
	A Greater Role for Africa
	Involvement of African Academic Institutions
	Scientific Advances
	Human Health
	Attention to Welfare
	Continued Search for Gorilla Material
	Greater Dissemination of Information
	Broadening the Holistic Approach
	Concluding Remarks
Introduction to the Catalogue
	Scope and Method of Compilation
	Layout
		Accession Number
		Nature of Specimen
		Age Category and Sex
		Species and Subspecies
		Locality
		Name of Collector and Date of Collection
		Method and Date of Acquisition
		Other Information
	Gorilla History, Taxonomy and Synonymy
		Troglodytes gorilla
		Troglodytes savagei
		Pithecus gesilla
		Chimpanza gorilla
		Gorilla gina
		Gorilla savagei
		Simia gorilla
		Satyrus adrotes
		Gorilla castaneiceps
		Gorilla mayêma
		Anthropopithecus gorilla
		Gorilla gigas
		Gorilla beringei
		Gorilla diehli
		Gorilla gorilla matschiei
		Gorilla jacobi
		Gorilla gorilla manyema
		Gorilla gorilla schwarzi
		Pseudogorilla mayema
		Gorilla graueri
		Gorilla hansmeyeri
		Gorilla zenkeri
		Gorilla beringei mikenensis
		Gorilla gorilla halli
		Gorilla gorilla rex-pygmaeorum
		Gorilla uellensis
		Gorilla
		Western Lowland Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla
		Cross River Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli
		Grauer’s Gorilla
		Mountain Gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei
	Hanno’s gorillai
		The Voyage and Related Geographical Interpretations
	Etymological Considerations
	BEHAVIOURAL CONSIDERATIONS
	Correspondents
Catalogue of Preserved Gorilla Materials
	Argentine Republic
		Buenos Aires
			Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales ‘Bernardino Rivadavia’, Avenida Angel Gallardo 470, Casilla de Correo 220, Sucursal 5...
		La Plata
			Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Paseo del Bosque, 1900 La Plata
	AUSTRALIA
		Adelaide
			South Australian Museum, North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia 5000
			University of Adelaide, Faculty of Dentistry, G.P.O. Box 498, Adelaide, South Australia 5001*
		Canberra
			Australian Institute of Anatomy, Canberra, ACT 2601
			Australian National University, School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Department of Prehistory and Anthropology, G.P.O. B...
		Launceston
			Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, 2 Invermay Road, Inveresk, Launceston, Tasmania 7248
		Melbourne
			Museum Victoria, Division of Natural History and Anthropology, 285–321 Russell Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3000
		Mogo
			Mogo Zoo, 222 Tomakin Road, Mogo, NSW 2536
		Perth
			Western Australian Museum, Francis Street, Perth, Western Australia 6000
		South Brisbane
			Queensland Museum, Corner of Grey and Melbourne Streets, South Bank, South Brisbane, Queensland 4101
		Sydney
			Australian Museum, 6–8 College Street, Sydney, New South Wales 2000
			Taronga Zoo, P.O. Box 20, Mosman, New South Wales 2088
			University of Sydney, Department of Anatomy and Histology, J.L. Shellshear Museum of Physical Anthropology and Comparative ...
	AUSTRIA
		Admont
			Naturhistorischen Museums, Benediktinerstift Admont, 8911 Admont 1*
		Graz
			Steiermärkisches Landesmuseum Joanneum, Abteilung für Zoologie, Raubergasse 10, 8010 Graz
		Innsbruck
			Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Sektion für Klinisch-Funktionelle Anatomie, Müllerstrasse 59, 6020 Innsbruck
			Leopold-Franzens-Universität Innsbruck, Institut für Zoologie und Limnologie, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck*
		Salzburg
			Haus der Natur, Museumplatz 5, 5020 Salzburg
		Vienna
			Naturhistorisches Museum, Burgring 7, Postfach 417, 1014 Wien
				Anthropologische Abteilung*
				Erste Zoologische Abteilung
			Naturhistorisches Museum Wien, Pathologisch-anatomische Sammlung im Narrenturm, Spitalgasse 2, 1090 Wien
			Veterinärmedizinischen Universität Wien, Institut für Anatomie, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Wien
	BELGIUM
		Brussels
			Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, Rue Vautier 29, 1000 Bruxelles
			Université Libre de Bruxelles, Musée de Zoologie Auguste Lameere, Faculté des Sciences, Avenue F.-D. Roosevelt 50, 1050 Bru...
		Ghent
			Universiteit Gent, Zoölogisch Museum, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, 9000 Gent
			Schoolmuseum Michel Thiery, Sint-Pietersplein 14, 9000 Gent*
		Leuven
			Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Departement Biologie, Verdeling van Ecologie, Evolutie en Biodiversiteit, Laboratorium voor...
		Louvain-La-Neuve
			Université Catholique de Louvain, Faculté des Sciences et l’Institut des Sciences de la Vie, Groupe de Recherche de Biochim...
		Tervuren
			Koninklijk Museum voor Midden-Afrika, Leuvensesteenweg 13, 3080 Tervuren
		Tournai
			Musée d’Histoire Naturelle et Vivarium, Rue Saint-Martin 52, 7500 Tournai*
	BRAZIL
		Rio de Janeiro
			Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Laboratório de Anatomia Comparata, Departamento de Anatomia, Instituto de Ciências ...
	BULGARIA
		Plovdiv
			Prirodonauchen muzei, Ch. G. Danov 34, 4000 Plovdiv*
Appendix 1 Glossary of Terms
	Introduction
	List of Terms and Meanings
Appendix 2 Protocols and Reports
	Introduction
	Postmortem Examination of Gorillas – Some Basic Rules
		Submission Forms
		Forensic Cases
		Report Forms
	Nonhuman Primate PostMortem Examination
		Collection of Tissues
		Labeling of Specimens
		Tissues to Be Preserved
	Cardiac Examination for Great Apes
	PostMortem Examination of Nonhuman Primate Fetuses and Neonates
	PostMortem Examination of the Air Sacs of Orangutans and Other Nonhuman Primates
	Gorilla PostMortem Examination
		Collection of Tissues
		Labeling of Specimens
		Tissues to Be Preserved
	Cardiac Examination for Apes and Other Primates
	PostMortem Examination of Primate Fetuses, Neonates and Placentas
	PostMortem Examination of the Air Sacs of Gorillas and Other Apes
	CNS/Musculoskeletal/Other
	Guide to the Nonhuman Primate PostMortem Examination Tips for Tissue Collection During the Necropsy Examination
		Collection of Tissues
		Labeling of Specimens
		Tissues to be Frozen
		Tissues to be Preserved
	Great Ape Tag Placental Examination
	PostMortem Examination of the Air Sacs of Apes
		Form for Postmortem Examination of the Air Sacs
	GAHP Recommended Cardiac Necropsy Prosection Guide
		Guide to Dissection of the Heart
		What You Need
		Questions? Feel Free to Contact
	Ape Cardiac Necropsy Protocol
	Decision Point
		Whole Heart Vs Selected Section Submission – See Above
	GAHP Recommended Cardiac Trimming Protocol for Pathologists
		Protocol for Trimming the Heart
		Questions? Feel Free to Contact
	GAHP Cardiac Necropsy Check Sheet
		Whole Heart Submission
	Skeletal Examination Form
Appendix 3 Field Pathology
	Introduction
Appendix 4 Hazards, Including Zoonoses
	Introduction
Appendix 5 Case Studies – Museums and Zoological Collections
	Introduction
	Studies on the Skeleton of ‘Guy’ at the NHM
		Background
		Materials and Methods
		Notes on the Cranial Morphology
		Examination of the Skeleton
			The Skeleton
			The Spine
			The Pelvis
			The Sternum
			The Limb Bones
			The Tarsus
			The Skull
			Radiography
			Comment
		A Review of the Clinical Records
			Comment
		Further Work
	Studies on Three Skeletons in the Osman Hill Collection
		Background
	The Research Proposal
	Initial Observations on the Specimens
	Sampling
	Processing the Samples for Histological Examination
	Processing of Samples for DNA Testing
	Results
	Acknowledgements
	Student Projects, Bristol, United Kingdom, 2015
		Introduction
	Project 1: A Review of the Data Relating to the Animal Management and Welfare of Gorillas at Bristol Zoo Gardens From 1930 ...
		Summarised Report
			Background
		Animal Management
		Health
	Project 2: The Development of Osteoarthritis in Captive Primates
		Summarised Report
			Background
			Results
	Acknowledgements
Appendix 6 Scientific Names of Species and Taxa Mentioned in Text
References and Further Reading
	References
Appendix CA1 Use of Collections and Handling of Biological Material
	Introduction
	The Needs Pertaining to Museums and Collections
	The Rise and Fall of Collections
	The Need for Pathology-Based Studies
	Working in Collaboration With Museums
	Making Maximum Use of Material in Museums
	Handling Preserved Material
Appendix CA2 Retrieval, Preparation and Storage of Skeletal and Other Material
	Introduction
	Skeleton
	Soft Tissue Preservation
	Skins
	The Recovery and Preparation of Skeletal Remains
	Invited Contribution – Skeletal Remains: Recovery, Preparation and Preservation
		Introduction
	Purposes of Recovery and Preservation of Skeletons
	Recovery of Skeletons From Fleshed Animals
		Skeleton Recovery by Boiling
		Skeleton Recovery by Maceration
		Skeleton Recovery Using Invertebrates
		Skeleton Recovery by Exposure to Natural Elements
			Terg-A-Zyme Enzyme Skeleton Cleaning Protocol
		Skeleton Recovery by Burial and Excavation
	Preparation, Preservation and Storage of Recovered Skeletons
		Degreasing
		Preservation
		Labelling
		Display
	Factors Affecting the Preservation of Material
	Comments on Postmortem Change
Index