Global Vegetation: Fundamentals, Ecology and Distribution

Preface
Directions for Use
	Photo Credits
	References
Contents
Abbreviations
List of Boxes
Chapter 1: Fundamentals towards Understanding Global Vegetation
	1.1 Introduction, Terms and Nomenclature
	1.2 Evolution, Phytogeography and Biodiversity
		1.2.1 History of Flora
		1.2.2 Geographical Distribution Areas and Bioregions
		1.2.3 Biodiversity
	1.3 Ecological Categorization of the Surface of the Earth
		1.3.1 Climate
		1.3.2 Biomes and Ecozones
		1.3.3 Rocks, Topography and Soil
	1.4 Plant Formations and their Derivation
		1.4.1 Physiognomic Plant Functional Types (pPFT)
		1.4.2 Overview of the Zonal Plant Formations of the Earth
		1.4.3 Fundamentals on the Subdivision of High Mountain Vegetation
	1.5 Azonal Vegetation
	1.6 Anthropogenic Vegetation
	References
Chapter 2: Zonal Vegetation of the Tropical Zone with Year-Round Rain
	2.1 Evergreen and Seasonal Tropical Lowland Rainforests
		2.1.1 Introduction
		2.1.2 Climate and Soil
		2.1.3 Diversity
		2.1.4 Structural and Functional Traits
		2.1.5 Forest Dynamics
		2.1.6 Phytomass and Carbon Balance
		2.1.7 Lianas and Epiphytes
		2.1.8 Vegetation Structure and Geographical Distribution
		2.1.9 Land Use
	2.2 Tropical Heath Forests
	References
Chapter 3: Zonal Vegetation of the Tropical Zone with Summer Rain
	3.1 Basics of the Tropical Zone with Summer Rain
		3.1.1 Climate
		3.1.2 Soils
		3.1.3 Forest or Savanna?
		3.1.4 Soil Properties and the Antagonism Between Grasses and Trees
		3.1.5 Coexistence Through Spatial and Temporal Niche Differentiation?
		3.1.6 Demographic Models: Fire and Herbivory
	3.2 Forests of the Tropical Zone with Summer Rain
		3.2.1 Evergreen or Deciduous?
		3.2.2 Characteristics
		3.2.3 Tropical Semi-Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forests
		3.2.4 Tropical Humid Raingreen Broad-Leaved Forests
		3.2.5 Tropical Dry Raingreen Broad-Leaved Forests
		3.2.6 Tropical Evergreen Sclerophyllous Broad-Leaved Forests
	3.3 Savannas
		3.3.1 Overview and Subdivision
		3.3.2 Tree and Shrub Layers
		3.3.3 Grass Layer
		3.3.4 Horizontal Vegetation Pattern
		3.3.5 Fauna
		3.3.6 Fire
		3.3.7 African Savannas
		3.3.8 South American Savannas
		3.3.9 Southeast Asian and Australian Savannas
	3.4 Land Use and Anthropogenic Vegetation
	References
Chapter 4: Tropical Azonal Vegetation
	4.1 Tropical Seashores and Estuaries
		4.1.1 Mangroves
		4.1.2 Sandy Shores
	4.2 Tropical Freshwater Wetlands
		4.2.1 Introduction
		4.2.2 Tropical Floodplains
		4.2.3 Tropical Swamps
		4.2.4 Tropical Peat Swamp Forests
	References
Chapter 5: Vegetation of the Tropical High Mountains
	5.1 Humid Tropical High Mountains
		5.1.1 Introduction
		5.1.2 Oreo-Tropical Forests
		5.1.3 Vegetation in the Humid Tropical Alpine Zone (Páramo)
		5.1.4 Anthropogenic Vegetation
	5.2 Dry Tropical High Mountains
		5.2.1 Introduction
		5.2.2 Oreo-Tropical Dry Forests and Shrublands
		5.2.3 Dry Tropical High Mountain Steppes
		5.2.4 High Mountain Semi-deserts
		5.2.5 Land Use
	References
Chapter 6: Zonal Vegetation of the Tropical-Subtropical Dry Zone
	6.1 Basics of the Tropical-Subtropical Dry Zone
		6.1.1 Geographical Distribution
		6.1.2 Climate
		6.1.3 Rocks, Topography and Soils
		6.1.4 Strategies of Plants in Dry Regions
			6.1.4.1 Overview
			6.1.4.2 Phreatophytes
			6.1.4.3 Stem and Leaf Succulents
			6.1.4.4 Xerophytes
			6.1.4.5 Ephemeral Plants
			6.1.4.6 Drought-Tolerant Plants
			6.1.4.7 Plants that Harvest Fog and Dew
			6.1.4.8 Halophytes
		6.1.5 Flora
		6.1.6 Subdivision of Vegetation
	6.2 Tropical and Subtropical Dry Forests and Shrublands
		6.2.1 America
		6.2.2 Africa
		6.2.3 Australia
	6.3 Semi-deserts and Deserts
		6.3.1 Succulent Semi-deserts
		6.3.2 Dwarf Shrub Semi-deserts
		6.3.3 Halophyte Semi-deserts
		6.3.4 Grass Semi-deserts
		6.3.5 Deserts
	6.4 Land Use
	References
Chapter 7: Zonal Vegetation of the Subtropical (Warm-Temperate) Zone with Year-Round Rain
	7.1 The Subtropics: Overview
	7.2 Basics of the Subtropical Zone with Year-Round Rain
	7.3 Subtropical Evergreen and Seasonal Laurophyllous Forest
		7.3.1 Overview and Characteristics
		7.3.2 Southeast Asia
		7.3.3 Macaronesia
		7.3.4 North and Central America
		7.3.5 South America
		7.3.6 South Africa
		7.3.7 Australia
		7.3.8 New Zealand
	7.4 Subtropical Grassland (Campo, Pampa)
		7.4.1 Overview and Characteristics
		7.4.2 Subtropical Grassland in South America
		7.4.3 Subtropical Grassland in South Africa
		7.4.4 Grassland versus Forest and Forest versus Grassland?
	7.5 Land Use
	References
Chapter 8: Zonal Vegetation of the Subtropical (Warm-Temperate) Zone with Winter Rain
	8.1 Basics of the Subtropical Zone with Winter Rain
		8.1.1 Geographical Distribution
		8.1.2 Climate and Soil
		8.1.3 Flora and Phytodiversity
		8.1.4 Convergence of Sclerophylly
	8.2 Subtropical Sclerophyllous Forests and Shrublands
		8.2.1 Overview
		8.2.2 Mediterranean Winter Rainfall Area
			8.2.2.1 Vegetation and Landscape History
			8.2.2.2 Sclerophyllous Forests
			8.2.2.3 Sclerophyllous Shrublands
			8.2.2.4 Anthropogenic Impact
		8.2.3 Californian Winter Rainfall Area
			8.2.3.1 Chapparal and Coastal Sagebrush
			8.2.3.2 Sclerophyllous Forests
		8.2.4 Chilean Winter Rainfall Area
		8.2.5 South African Winter Rainfall Area
		8.2.6 Australian Winter Rainfall Area
	References
Chapter 9: Temperate Azonal Vegetation
	9.1 Temperate Wetlands
		9.1.1 Introduction
		9.1.2 Subtropical Freshwater Wetlands
			9.1.2.1 Alluvial Plains
			9.1.2.2 Swamps and Mires
		9.1.3 Saltwater Wetlands
		9.1.4 Nemoral Floodplains
		9.1.5 Nemoral Peatlands and Mires
	9.2 Temperate Coastal Dunes
	References
Chapter 10: Vegetation of the Temperate High Mountains
	10.1 Subtropical High Mountains
	10.2 Nemoral High Mountains
		10.2.1 Introduction and Overview
		10.2.2 The Oreo-Nemoral and Oreo-Boreal Belt
		10.2.3 The Treeline Ecotone
		10.2.4 The Alpine Belt: Climate and Soil
		10.2.5 Alpine Flora
		10.2.6 Survival Strategies of Alpine Plants
		10.2.7 Vegetation of the Alpine Belt
	References
Chapter 11: Zonal Vegetation of the Humid Nemoral (Cool-Temperate) Zone
	11.1 The Nemoral Zone: Overview
	11.2 Basics of the Humid Nemoral Zone
		11.2.1 Geographical Distribution
		11.2.2 Climate
		11.2.3 Soils
		11.2.4 Flora
		11.2.5 General Subdivision of the Humid Nemoral Vegetation
	11.3 Nemoral Summergreen Broad-Leaved Forests
		11.3.1 Physiognomy and Structure
		11.3.2 Reproduction and Dynamics
		11.3.3 Seasonal Rhythm
		11.3.4 Phytomass and Carbon Balance
		11.3.5 Acidophytic and Basiphytic Field Layer Plants
		11.3.6 Classification and Geographical Distribution Area
			11.3.6.1 Overview
			11.3.6.2 Europe and Neighboring Areas
			11.3.6.3 East Asia
			11.3.6.4 North America
			11.3.6.5 South America
	11.4 Nemoral Evergreen Coniferous Forests
		11.4.1 Overview
		11.4.2 North-West Pacific Humid Coniferous Forests
		11.4.3 North American Dry Pine Forests
	11.5 Nemoral Evergreen Broad-Leaved Forests
		11.5.1 Overview
		11.5.2 Nemoral Laurophyllous Forests
		11.5.3 Nemoral Evergreen Nothofagus Forests
	11.6 Land Use and Anthropogenic Vegetation
		11.6.1 Cultivated Plant Stands and the Accompanying Vegetation
		11.6.2 Semi-natural Grassland
	References
Chapter 12: Zonal Vegetation of the Dry Nemoral (Cool-Temperate) Zone
	12.1 Basics of the Dry Nemoral Zone
		12.1.1 Geographical Distribution
		12.1.2 Climate
		12.1.3 Soils
		12.1.4 Flora
		12.1.5 General Subdivision of Dry Nemoral Vegetation
	12.2 Nemoral Grasslands (Steppes)
		12.2.1 Tallgrass Steppes
		12.2.2 Shortgrass Steppes
		12.2.3 Desert Steppes
		12.2.4 Survival Strategies of Steppe Plants
		12.2.5 Phytomass and Primary Production
		12.2.6 Herbivory
		12.2.7 Fire
	12.3 Nemoral Dry Woodlands
	12.4 Nemoral Deserts and Semi-Deserts
		12.4.1 North America
		12.4.2 Asia
		12.4.3 South America
	12.5 Land Use
		12.5.1 Arable Farming
		12.5.2 Pasture Farming
	References
Chapter 13: Vegetation of the Boreal (Cold-Temperate) Zone
	13.1 Basics of the Boreal Zone
		13.1.1 Geographical Distribution
		13.1.2 Climate
		13.1.3 Soils
		13.1.4 Flora
	13.2 Vegetation of the Boreal Zone
		13.2.1 Overview
		13.2.2 Boreal Summergreen Broad-Leaved Forests
		13.2.3 Boreal Evergreen Coniferous Forests (Dark Taiga)
		13.2.4 Boreal Summergreen Coniferous Forests (Light Taiga)
		13.2.5 The Boreal Treeline Ecotone
		13.2.6 Mires
	13.3 Matter Balances and Dynamics of Boreal Forests
		13.3.1 Matter Balance
		13.3.2 Forest Dynamics
		13.3.3 Carbon Balance and Global Warming
	13.4 Land Use
	References
Chapter 14: Vegetation of the Polar Zone
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Geographical Distribution and Overview
		14.1.2 Climate
		14.1.3 Patterned Ground and Soil Formation
	14.2 Flora and Vegetation of Antarctica
	14.3 Flora and Vegetation of the Arctic
		14.3.1 Flora
		14.3.2 Origin of the Arctic Species Pool
		14.3.3 Vegetation
		14.3.4 Survival Strategies of Arctic Plants
			14.3.4.1 Life and Growth Forms
			14.3.4.2 Nutrient Ecology
			14.3.4.3 Reproduction
		14.3.5 Carbon Balance
		14.3.6 Anthropogenic Impact
	References