Global Navigation Satellite Systems, Inertial Navigation, and Integration, 3rd Edition

Cover......Page 1
Title page......Page 5
Copyright page......Page 6
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 29
Acknowledgments......Page 33
Acronyms and Abbreviations......Page 35
1.1.1 Navigation-Related Technologies......Page 43
1.1.2 Navigation Modes......Page 44
1.2.1 GPS......Page 46
1.2.2 Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS)......Page 48
1.2.3 Galileo......Page 49
1.3.1 Theoretical Foundations......Page 52
1.3.2 Inertial Sensor Technology......Page 53
1.4.1 The Role of Kalman Filtering......Page 72
1.4.3 Applications......Page 73
References......Page 74
2.1.1 Systems Other than GNSS......Page 77
2.2.2 Navigation Solution (Two-Dimensional Example)......Page 78
2.2.3 Satellite Selection and Dilution of Precision (DOP)......Page 83
2.2.4 Example Calculation of DOPS......Page 87
2.3.2 GPS System Time......Page 88
2.3.3 Receiver Computation of UTC......Page 89
2.4.1 User Position Calculations......Page 90
2.4.2 User Velocity Calculations......Page 92
Problem......Page 93
References......Page 95
3.1 Chapter Focus......Page 96
3.2 Basic Terminology......Page 97
3.3 Inertial Sensor Error Models......Page 101
3.3.1 Zero-Mean Random Errors......Page 102
3.3.2 Fixed-Pattern Errors......Page 103
3.3.3 Sensor Error Stability......Page 104
3.4.1 Sensor Biases, Scale Factors, and Misalignments......Page 105
3.4.2 Other Calibration Parameters......Page 107
3.4.3 Calibration Parameter Instabilities......Page 108
3.4.4 Auxilliary Sensors before GNSS......Page 109
3.5 Earth Models......Page 110
3.5.1 Terrestrial Navigation Coordinates......Page 111
3.5.3 Gravity Models......Page 112
3.6 Hardware Implementations......Page 119
3.6.1 Gimbaled Implementations......Page 120
3.6.2 Floated Implementation......Page 122
3.6.3 Carouseling and Indexing......Page 123
3.6.5 Strapdown Carouseling and Indexing......Page 124
3.7.1 Example in One Dimension......Page 125
3.7.2 Initialization in Nine Dimensions......Page 126
3.7.3 Gimbal Attitude Implementations......Page 129
3.7.4 Gimbaled Navigation Implementation......Page 131
3.7.5 Strapdown Attitude Implementations......Page 132
3.7.6 Strapdown Navigation Implementation......Page 139
3.7.7 Navigation Computer and Software Requirements......Page 141
3.8.2 INS Performance Metrics......Page 143
3.9.1 Laboratory Testing......Page 144
3.10 Summary......Page 145
Problem......Page 146
References......Page 148
4: GNSS Signal Structure, Characteristics, and Information Utilization......Page 150
4.1.1 Mathematical Signal Models for the Legacy GPS Signals......Page 151
4.1.2 Navigation Data Format......Page 154
4.1.3 GPS Satellite Position Calculations......Page 159
4.1.4 C/A-Code and Its Properties......Page 164
4.1.5 P(Y)-Code and Its Properties......Page 171
4.1.6 L1 and L2 Carriers......Page 172
4.1.8 Free Space and Other Loss Factors......Page 173
4.2 Modernization of GPS......Page 174
4.2.1 Areas to Benefit from Modernization......Page 175
4.2.2 Elements of the Modernized GPS......Page 176
4.2.3 L2 Civil Signal (L2C)......Page 177
4.2.4 L5 Signal......Page 178
4.2.5 M-Code......Page 180
4.2.6 L1C Signal......Page 181
4.2.7 GPS Satellite Blocks......Page 182
4.3 GLONASS Signal Structure and Characteristics......Page 183
4.3.1 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) Signals......Page 184
4.3.2 CDMA Modernization......Page 185
4.4.2 Navigation Data and Signals......Page 186
4.6 QZSS......Page 188
Problem......Page 189
References......Page 192
5.2 GNSS Antenna Performance Characteristics......Page 194
5.2.2 Frequency and Bandwidth Coverage......Page 195
5.2.3 Radiation Pattern Characteristics......Page 197
5.2.4 Antenna Polarization and Axial Ratio......Page 198
5.2.5 Directivity, Efficiency, and Gain of a GNSS Antenna......Page 201
5.2.6 Antenna Impedance, Standing Wave Ratio, and Return Loss......Page 202
5.2.7 Antenna Bandwidth......Page 203
5.2.8 Antenna Noise Figure......Page 205
5.3 Computational Electromagnetic Models (CEMs) for GNSS Antenna Design......Page 206
5.4.2 GNSS Patch Antennas......Page 208
5.4.3 Survey-Grade/Reference GNSS Antennas......Page 218
5.5 Principles of Adaptable Phased-Array Antennas......Page 222
5.5.1 Digital Beamforming Adaptive Antenna Array Formulations......Page 224
5.5.4 Configurations of Adaptable Phased-Array Antennas......Page 227
5.5.5 Relative Merits of Adaptable Phased-Array Antennas......Page 228
5.6 Application Calibration/Compensation Considerations......Page 229
Problem......Page 231
References......Page 232
6.1.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Application to be Supported......Page 235
6.1.2 Single or Multifrequency Support......Page 236
6.1.4 Code Selections......Page 237
6.1.5 Differential Capability......Page 238
6.1.6 Aiding Inputs......Page 240
6.2.1 Radio Frequency (RF) Front End......Page 241
6.2.2 Frequency Down-Conversion and IF Amplification......Page 243
6.2.3 Analog-to-Digital Conversion and Automatic Gain Control......Page 245
6.3 Signal Acquisition and Tracking......Page 246
6.3.2 Hypothesize about Which GNSS Satellites Are Visible......Page 247
6.3.4 Search for Signal in Frequency and Code Phase......Page 248
6.3.5 Signal Detection and Confirmation......Page 252
6.3.6 Code Tracking Loop......Page 255
6.3.7 Carrier Phase Tracking Loops......Page 260
6.3.9 Data Bit Demodulation......Page 264
6.4.1 Signal Transmission Time Information......Page 265
6.4.3 Pseudorange Measurements Formulation Using Code Phase......Page 266
6.4.4 Measurements Using Carrier Phase......Page 268
6.4.5 Carrier Doppler Measurement......Page 270
6.4.6 Integrated Doppler Measurements......Page 271
6.5 Theoretical Considerations in Pseudorange, Carrier Phase, and Frequency Estimations......Page 273
6.5.1 Theoretical Error Bounds for Code Phase Measurement......Page 274
6.5.2 Theoretical Error Bounds for Carrier Phase Measurements......Page 275
6.5.3 Theoretical Error Bounds for Frequency Measurement......Page 276
6.6 High-Sensitivity A-GPS Systems......Page 277
6.6.1 How Assisting Data Improves Receiver Performance......Page 278
6.6.2 Factors Affecting High-Sensitivity Receivers......Page 282
6.7 Software-Defined Radio (SDR) Approach......Page 284
6.8 Pseudolite Considerations......Page 285
Problem......Page 286
References......Page 288
7.1 Data Errors......Page 292
7.2 Ionospheric Propagation Errors......Page 293
7.2.1 Ionospheric Delay Model......Page 294
7.2.2 GNSS SBAS Ionospheric Algorithms......Page 296
7.3 Tropospheric Propagation Errors......Page 305
7.4.1 How Multipath Causes Ranging Errors......Page 306
7.5 Methods of Multipath Mitigation......Page 308
7.5.1 Spatial Processing Techniques......Page 309
7.5.2 Time-Domain Processing......Page 311
7.5.3 Multipath Mitigation Technology (MMT) Technology......Page 314
7.5.4 Performance of Time-Domain Methods......Page 323
7.6.1 Estimation-Theoretic Methods......Page 325
7.6.3 Multipath Modeling Errors......Page 326
7.8 Onboard Clock Errors......Page 327
7.9 Receiver Clock Errors......Page 328
7.11 Error Budgets......Page 330
Problem......Page 331
References......Page 333
8.1 Introduction......Page 335
8.2.3 SBAS......Page 336
8.3 GEO with L1L5 Signals......Page 341
8.3.1 GEO Uplink Subsystem Type 1 (GUST) Control Loop Overview......Page 344
8.4 GUS Clock Steering Algorithm......Page 349
8.4.1 Receiver Clock Error Determination......Page 350
8.5 GEO Orbit Determination (OD)......Page 352
8.5.1 OD Covariance Analysis......Page 354
8.6.1 Local-Area Augmentation System (LAAS)......Page 358
8.6.2 Joint Precision Approach and Landing System (JPALS)......Page 359
8.6.3 Enhanced Long-Range Navigation (eLoran)......Page 360
8.7.1 Code Differential Measurements......Page 361
8.7.2 Carrier Phase Differential Measurements......Page 363
8.7.3 Positioning Using Double-Difference Measurements......Page 364
8.8.1 The International GNSS Service (IGS)......Page 365
8.8.3 GPS Inferred Positioning System (GIPSY) and Orbit Analysis Simulation Software (OASIS)......Page 366
Problem......Page 367
References......Page 368
9.1 Introduction......Page 370
9.1.1 Range Comparison Method......Page 371
9.1.2 Least-Squares Method......Page 372
9.1.3 Parity Method......Page 373
9.2 SBAS and GBAS Integrity Design......Page 374
9.2.1 SBAS Error Sources and Integrity Threats......Page 375
9.2.2 GNSS-Associated Errors......Page 376
9.2.3 GEO-Associated Errors......Page 378
9.2.4 Receiver and Measurement Processing Errors......Page 379
9.2.5 Estimation Errors......Page 380
9.2.6 Integrity-Bound Associated Errors......Page 381
9.2.8 Mitigation of Integrity Threats......Page 382
9.3 SBAS Example......Page 388
9.4 Summary......Page 389
References......Page 390
10.1 Introduction......Page 392
10.1.1 What Is a Kalman Filter?......Page 393
10.1.2 How Does It Work?......Page 394
10.1.3 How Is It Used?......Page 395
10.2.1 Deriving the Kalman Gain......Page 396
10.2.2 Estimate Correction Using the Kalman Gain......Page 406
10.3.1 Stochastic Systems in Continuous Time......Page 407
10.3.2 Stochastic Systems in Discrete Time......Page 414
10.3.3 State Space Models for Discrete Time......Page 415
10.3.5 Predictor Equations......Page 416
10.4.2 Common Terminology......Page 417
10.4.3 Data Flow Diagrams......Page 418
10.5 Accommodating Time-Correlated Noise......Page 419
10.5.1 Correlated Noise Models......Page 420
10.5.2 Empirical Modeling of Sensor Noise......Page 422
10.5.3 State Vector Augmentation......Page 424
10.6.1 Assessing Linear Approximation Errors......Page 426
10.6.2 Nonlinear Dynamics......Page 432
10.6.4 Linearized Kalman Filter......Page 433
10.6.5 Extended Kalman Filtering (EKF)......Page 434
10.6.6 Adaptive Kalman Filtering......Page 435
10.7.1 Implementation Equations......Page 437
10.7.2 Kalman–Bucy Filter Parameters......Page 438
10.8.2 Dynamic Dilution of Information......Page 439
10.8.3 Specialized Host Vehicle Tracking Filters......Page 441
10.8.4 Vehicle Tracking Filter Comparison......Page 453
10.9.1 Schmidt–Kalman Suboptimal Filtering......Page 455
10.9.2 Serial Measurement Processing......Page 458
10.9.3 Improving Numerical Stability......Page 459
10.9.4 Kalman Filter Monitoring......Page 463
10.10 Summary......Page 467
Problems......Page 468
References......Page 470
11.1 Chapter Focus......Page 472
11.2.3 Model Variables and Parameters......Page 474
11.2.4 Dynamic Coupling Mechanisms......Page 481
11.3.1 Error Dynamics due to Velocity Integration......Page 484
11.3.2 Error Dynamics due to Gravity Calculations......Page 485
11.3.3 Error Dynamics due to Coriolis Acceleration......Page 487
11.3.4 Error Dynamics due to Centrifugal Acceleration......Page 488
11.3.5 Error Dynamics due to Earthrate Leveling......Page 489
11.3.6 Error Dynamics due to Velocity Leveling......Page 490
11.3.7 Error Dynamics due to Acceleration and Misalignments......Page 491
11.3.8 Composite Model from All Effects......Page 492
11.3.9 Vertical Navigation Instability......Page 494
11.3.10 Schuler Oscillations......Page 499
11.4 Inertial Sensor Noise......Page 501
11.5 Sensor Compensation Errors......Page 503
11.5.1 Sensor Compensation Error Models......Page 504
11.6 Software Sources......Page 509
11.7 Summary......Page 510
Problems......Page 512
References......Page 513
12.1.1 Objective......Page 514
12.2.1 Historical Background......Page 515
12.2.2 The Loose/Tight Ranking......Page 517
12.2.3 Unified Navigation Model......Page 519
12.3.1 GNSS Error Models......Page 521
12.3.2 INS Error Models......Page 523
12.3.3 GNSS/INS Error Model......Page 524
12.4.1 Dynamic Simulation Model......Page 527
12.4.2 Results......Page 528
12.5.1 Antenna/ISA Offset Correction......Page 532
12.5.2 Influence of Trajectories on Performance......Page 533
12.6 Summary......Page 534
Problem......Page 535
References......Page 536
A.1 Software Sources......Page 537
A.4 Software for Chapter 7......Page 538
A.5 Software for Chapter 10......Page 539
A.7 Software for Chapter 12......Page 540
A.8 Almanac/Ephemeris Data Sources......Page 541
B.1.1 Notation......Page 542
B.1.3 Unit Coordinate Vectors......Page 543
B.1.4 Direction Cosines......Page 544
B.2 Inertial Reference Directions......Page 545
B.3.1 Cartesian and Polar Coordinates......Page 546
B.3.3 Satellite Orbit Coordinates......Page 547
B.3.4 ECI Coordinates......Page 549
B.3.5 Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed (ECEF) Coordinates......Page 550
B.3.7 Local Tangent Plane (LTP) Coordinates......Page 557
B.3.9 Vehicle Attitude Euler Angles......Page 560
B.3.10 GNSS Navigation Coordinates......Page 563
B.4.1 Euler Angles......Page 565
B.4.2 Rotation Vectors......Page 566
B.4.3 Direction Cosine Matrix......Page 581
B.4.4 Quaternions......Page 585
B.5.1 Rotating Coordinates......Page 590
B.5.3 Solving for Centrifugal and Coriolis Accelerations......Page 591
Index......Page 593