Ginger’s Antimicrobial, Anti-nausea and Anti-osteoarthritic Activities

Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
Ginger and the Gastrointestinal Tract: Bioactive Effector Molecules and Possible Future Uses
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Gingerol and Shogaol Chemistry  and Availability
		Metabolism and Bioavailability of Gingerols and Shogaols
	Ginger, Nausea and Emesis:  Reviewing the Evidence
		Ginger and Nausea: Evidence from Human Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trials
	Molecular Mechanismsof Nausea and Emesis
		Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy:  Pathophysiology and Management
		Chemotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting:  Pathophysiology and Treatment
		Post-Operative Nausea and Vomiting:  Pathophysiology and Treatment
	Mechanisms of Anti-Emetic and Anti-Nausea Action of Gingerols and Shogaols:  Implications for NVP, CINV and PONV
		Gingerols and Shogaols Anti-Nausea and Emesis Mechanisms in Pregnancy-Induced Vomiting
		Gingerols and Shogaols Anti-Nausea and Emesis Mechanisms  in Chemotherapy-Induced Vomiting
		Gingerols and Shogaols Anti-Nausea and Emesis Mechanisms in Post-Operative Vomiting
		Probiotic Effects of Gingerols and Shogaols:  Important in Managing NVP and CINV
	Strategies to Standardize  and Deliver Gingerols and Shogaols
		Current State of the Art of Semi-Synthetic Forms  of Gingerols and Shogaols
		Current State of the Art in the Development of Stabilized Gingerols and Shogaols
			Gingerol and Shogaol Nanoparticles as Potential Tumoricidal Agents and to Remediate Intestinal Inflammation
			Stabilized Shogaol Micelles as Tumoricidal Agents
		Other Methodologies for Stabilizing Gingerol  as an Antioxidant and Tumoricidal Agent
	Conclusion and Potential Future Directions
		Potential for Gingerol and Shogaol in the Management  of Neoplastic Disease
		Potential for Gingerol and Shogaol in the Management  of Inflammatory Bowel Disease
	References
Chapter 2
Ginger as an Antibacterial Agent
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Antibacterial Compounds of Ginger
	Antibacterial Effects of Zingiber officinale against Skin and Joint Infections
		Staphylococcus aureus
		Streptococcus pyogenes
		Other Notable Bacterial Agents in Skin and Joint Infections
	Antibacterial Effects of Zingiber officinale against Respiratory Infections
		Effects of Ginger on Multiple Respiratory Bacteria
		Pseudomonas aeruginosa
		Klebsiella pneumoniae
		Mycobacterium tuberculosis
	Antibacterial Effects of Zingiber officinale  on Diseases of the Digestive System
		Escherichia coli
		Helicobacter pylori
		Salmonella typhi
		Other Gastrointestinal Bacterial Pathogens
	Antibacterial Effects of Zingiber officinale against Oral Infections
		Streptococcus mutans
		Lactobacillus
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3
Ginger as an Antifungal Agent
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Ecological Relationships Underpin Mechanisms of Fungal Action
	Antifungal Activity of Ginger Essential Oil (EO)
	Pathogenic Human Disease:  Ginger as Antifungal Agent for Immunocompromised Populations
		Immunocompromised Populations at Risk for Fungal
		Resistance and Side Effects of Current  Pharmaceutical Treatments
		Ginger as an Effective Antifungal Agent for Aspergillosis
		Ginger as an Effective Antifungal Agent for Candidiasis
			Vaginal Candidiasis
			Oral Candidiasis
	Traditional Use to Clinical Trial: An Example
	Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4
Ginger as an Antiviral Agent
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Ginger as an Agent against Human  Respiratory Viruses
		SARS-CoV-2
		Influenza Viruses
		Rhinovirus
		Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus
	Ginger as an Agent against Human  Non-Respiratory Viruses
		Herpes Simplex Virus
		Norovirus
		Hepatitis A Virus
		Hepatitis C Virus
		Human Papillomavirus
		Dengue Virus
	Ginger as an Agent against Non-Human Viruses
		Newcastle Disease Virus
		Tobacco Mosaic Virus
		Fig Leaf Mottle Associated Virus 1
	Conclusion and Unanswered Questions
	References
Chapter 5
Ginger and Osteoarthritis:  Current Evidence for Efficacy  and Possible Future Uses  for Effective Delivery Systems
	Abstract
	Introduction
	Osteoarthritis Pathophysiology
		Synoviocyte Activation as an Initiating Event
		IL-1β Is Central to Decreased OA Cartilage Integrity
		OA Is an Inflammatory Disease Involving NO and ROS
		RANKL Activation Results in Mobilization  of Arachidonic Acid Mediators
		Cartilage Matrix Breakdown Involves  the WNT/β Catenin Pathway
	Gingerols, Shogaols and Enriched Ginger Extract and OA: In Vitro and Animal Studies
		In Vitro Studies of Ginger and Its Components on OA Cells
		In Vivo Preclinical (Animal) Studies of Ginger  and Its Components on Experimental Arthritis Models
	In Vitro and Animal Data Suggest Gingerols  and Shogaols Inhibit Multiple OA Pathways
		OA Synoviocyte Activation and Inflammatory  Cell Influx is Reduced or Prevented
		OA Chondrocyte Apoptosis and Cartilage Turnover  Are Reduced or Prevented
		OA Reactive Bone Thickening is Reduced or Prevented
	Human Data for Ginger  and OA Have Produced Conflicting Data
	Conclusion and Potential Ways  Forward for Ginger
		TLR-4, Nrf2 and WNT/β Catenin Activities:  Three Reasons to Develop 6-Gingerol and 6-Shogoal for OA
		Could 6-Gingerol and 6-Shogaol Be Developed  into Oral Medicinal AGENTS?
		Transdermal Delivery for 6-Gingerol and 6-Shogaol  Represents an Optimal Safe Use for OA Patients
	Final Thoughts
	References
Editor’s Contact Information
Index
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