Geothermal energy resources for developing countries

1 INTRODUCTION......Page 11
2.1 Energy resources......Page 12
2.3 Energy consumption forecast......Page 14
2.4 Environment degradation......Page 17
3.1 Sustainability definition......Page 18
3.3 Sustainability science......Page 19
3.3.2 Research strategies......Page 20
3.4 Sustainability concept definition......Page 21
3.5.2 Strong sustainability......Page 22
5 ENERGY SYSTEM INDICATORS......Page 23
5.1.3 Social indicators......Page 24
5.1.4 Economic indicators......Page 25
6 MULTICRITERIA EVALUATION OF ENERGY SYSTEMS......Page 26
6.1 Sustainability index definition......Page 27
6.2.2 Case 2......Page 28
6.2.3 Case 3......Page 29
6.2.4 Case 4......Page 30
7.1 Prevention of the energy resources depletion with scarcity index control......Page 31
7.3.2 Fluidised bed combustion......Page 32
7.5 New and renewable energy sources NRES......Page 33
7.5.1 Solar energy resources......Page 34
7.5.2 Geothermal energy resources......Page 36
7.5.3 Biomass energy resources......Page 37
7.5.5 Hydro energy resources......Page 38
7.6 Environment capacity for the combustion products......Page 39
7.7 Mitigation of nuclear power threat to the environment......Page 40
REFERENCES......Page 42
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 46
2 INTEGRATING ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT IN THE VALUE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY......Page 47
3.1 The potential......Page 50
3.2 The costs......Page 51
3.3 Investments from the perspective of private agents......Page 54
3.4 Investments in a socio-economic perspective......Page 55
3.4.2 Local environmental impacts......Page 56
3.4.3 Climate change......Page 58
4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 59
REFERENCES......Page 60
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 61
2 ACTUAL AND POTENTIAL USE FOR ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION......Page 64
REFERENCES......Page 68
1.1 Economic barriers......Page 70
1.2 Regulatory barriers......Page 71
1.3.1 Types of risks......Page 72
1.3.3 Possible policies for risk distribution......Page 73
2.1.1 National authority......Page 75
2.1.2 Regulatory framework......Page 76
2.1.3 Sectoral incentives......Page 77
2.2 A framework for stimulating the private sector......Page 78
3 EXPERIENCES FROM GEOTHERMAL OPERATION CONTRACTS IN ASIA......Page 79
3.1.2 Development models......Page 80
3.2.2 Development in Indonesia......Page 81
REFERENCES......Page 82
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 83
2 EDUCATION AND THE FORMATION OF PUBLIC AWARENESS......Page 85
3.1 Capacity building needs......Page 87
3.2 Training courses and centres......Page 89
5 CLOSING THE GAPS BETWEEN GROUPS INVOLVED......Page 91
5.1 The gap between scientists and politicians......Page 92
5.6 The role of non-governmental organisations......Page 93
6.1 Demand and opportunities......Page 94
6.2 Synchronous and asynchronous virtual training methods......Page 95
2 THE MISSIONS OF UNEP AND GEF......Page 97
4 PRESENT SITUATION......Page 98
5 KEY FACTORS......Page 99
7 INTERNATIONAL GEOTHERMAL PROJECT FINANCING......Page 100
8.1 Government policies and needs of the private sector......Page 101
8.3 Accurate costing of electric power from traditional resources......Page 102
9.1 Lack of awareness among developers and financing institutions about near-term opportunities......Page 103
9.2 Lack of private sector participation due to high risk/high cost of resource exploration and assessment......Page 104
9.4 Lack of private sector access to financing due to modest scale of geothermal projects......Page 105
9.7 Lack of trained host country personnel......Page 106
10 CONCLUSIONS......Page 107
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 108
2 SMALL GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS......Page 109
2.2 Current applications of small geothermal plants......Page 110
3.1 Usable geothermal resources......Page 111
3.3 Exploration cost reduction for small geothermal projects......Page 112
3.4 Resource characterization status......Page 114
4.1 Rural energy needs......Page 115
5.1 Describing the market for small geothermal......Page 117
5.2 Geothermal technologies for small systems......Page 121
5.3 Costs of small geothermal plants......Page 122
6.1 Electricity-sector structure and its reform......Page 124
6.2 Geothermal industry capabilities and challenges......Page 126
7 RURAL ELECTRIFICATION: LESSONS LEARNED......Page 128
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 129
REFERENCES......Page 130
2 UTILIZATION......Page 134
2.2 Space conditioning......Page 138
2.3 District heating......Page 139
2.4 Agribusiness applications......Page 140
2.5 Industrial applications......Page 141
3 EQUIPMENT......Page 142
3.2 Piping......Page 143
3.3 Heat exchangers......Page 146
3.4 Heat pumps......Page 148
3.6 Refrigeration......Page 149
4 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS......Page 150
5 FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS......Page 151
REFERENCES......Page 152
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 153
2 EXAMPLES OF GEOTHERMALLY-HEATED GREENHOUSES......Page 154
3 GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA......Page 156
REFERENCES......Page 157
1.1 Background......Page 159
2 EXAMPLES OF GEOTHERMAL PROJECTS......Page 160
REFERENCES......Page 162
2 TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS......Page 164
3 HEAT PUMP GROWTH POTENTIAL......Page 168
REFERENCES......Page 169
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 170
2.1 Grain and rice drying......Page 171
2.2 Vegetable and fruit dehydration......Page 174
2.3 Lumber drying......Page 176
2.4.1 Details......Page 178
REFERENCES......Page 179
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 181
2 TYPES AND IMPORTANCE OF SURFACE THERMAL MANIFESTATIONS......Page 182
3.2 Methods to interpret chemical data during hydrogeochemical prospecting......Page 184
3.3 Gas components and geothermometry in the gas phase......Page 188
3.4 The 3He/4He ratio in the gas phase......Page 190
4.1 Geoelectrical prospecting......Page 192
4.2 Geothermal prospecting through wells for measuring geothermal gradients......Page 194
REFERENCES......Page 195
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 196
2.1.1 Analytical errors and data handling......Page 197
2.1.2 Error propagation theory......Page 200
2.1.3 Statistical tests for univariate samples......Page 201
2.1.4 Robust methods......Page 204
2.1.5 Other important statistical tests......Page 205
2.2 Geology......Page 206
2.3.1 Instrumental calibrations in geochemistry......Page 207
2.3.3 Fluid geochemistry......Page 210
2.4 Geothermometers......Page 211
2.5 Temperature estimates......Page 215
3 CASE HISTORIES......Page 216
3.4 Other fields......Page 217
REFERENCES......Page 218
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 225
2 STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS......Page 226
2.1 Pressure, volume and temperature PVT characteristics of water......Page 227
2.3 Fluid production from a geothermal reservoir......Page 228
3 SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL DATA QUALITY......Page 229
4 CALCULATION OF GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIR FLUID PARAMETERS......Page 230
4.1 Conservation of mass and enthalpy......Page 231
4.2.1 Cation exchange geothermometers......Page 232
4.2.2 Quartz solubility geothermometer......Page 233
4.3 pH calculation through alkalinity......Page 236
4.4 An example to illustrate the geochemical calculations......Page 237
5 GEOCHEMICAL MODELING OF GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS......Page 240
2 GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS......Page 252
3.2 Sulphate rich waters......Page 254
3.3 Bicarbonate waters......Page 255
4.1 Trace elements in geothermal waters......Page 256
4.3 Cation geothermometers......Page 257
4.4 Na-K and K-Mg thermometer......Page 259
5.1 Ar, N2 and He content is gases......Page 261
6 OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN ISOTOPIC RATIO IN GEOTHERMAL WATERS......Page 263
REFERENCES......Page 265
1.2 Geothermal aquifer systems......Page 267
2.1 Scope of environmental impact assessments......Page 268
3.1 Global environmental factors......Page 269
3.2.2 Water pollution......Page 271
3.2.6 Other physical impacts......Page 273
3.2.8 Socioeconomic impacts......Page 274
4.1.2 Eco-Management and audit scheme EMAS......Page 275
4.2 Optimization of the environmental impacts of geothermal energy utilization......Page 276
REFERENCES......Page 277
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 279
2.1.1 Obtaining access and regulatory approval......Page 280
2.1.3 Well drilling......Page 281
2.2.1 The power plant......Page 282
2.2.1.1 Cycle selection......Page 283
2.2.1.2 Equipment selection......Page 284
2.2.2 Direct use......Page 288
2.2.2.2 Project construction......Page 289
2.3.1 Electrical generation......Page 290
2.3.2 Co-production......Page 292
3.1 Institutional framework......Page 293
3.1.1 Power procurement approach......Page 294
3.1.2.3 Performance......Page 295
3.1.6 Currency issues......Page 296
3.2 Financing approaches and sources......Page 297
3.2.3 Project finance......Page 298
3.2.3.3 Non-dilution of existing equity to finance the project......Page 299
3.2.5 Financing sources ? commercial banks......Page 300
3.3.1 Project risks......Page 301
3.3.2 Risk mitigation......Page 302
3.3.2.2 Government support obligations......Page 303
3.3.2.3 Energy sales agreement provision......Page 304
3.3.2.4 Insurance packages......Page 305
3.3.3.2 Construction contract......Page 306
REFERENCES......Page 307
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS......Page 308
ANSWERS......Page 309
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 311
2 GEOTHERMAL POTENTIAL AND ACTUAL USE......Page 315
3.1 The economic asset value of geothermal energy......Page 316
3.2 Environmental and social economic benefits through emission reduction......Page 317
3.3.1 Climate related risks, environmental and social impacts......Page 318
3.3.2 Volcanic and seismic hazards......Page 320
3.4 AIJ/CDM opportunities through emission reduction......Page 322
3.5 Other benefits associated with geothermal......Page 323
3.6 Cost assessment......Page 324
4.1 Overview......Page 327
4.3 Honduras......Page 329
4.4 El Salvador......Page 330
4.7 Panama......Page 331
5 REGIONALISATION OF NATIONAL ELECTRICITY MARKETS ? OPPORTUNITIES AND OBSTACLES FOR GEOTHERMAL ENERGY PROMOTION......Page 332
6.1 Legal aspects; electricity and geothermal laws......Page 333
6.4 Power distribution......Page 335
7 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IN THE FRAMEWORK OF NATIONAL ENERGY DEMAND AND EXPANSION PLANS......Page 336
8 GEOTHERMAL RURAL ELECTRIFICATION AND DIRECT USE OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY......Page 339
9 LIMITING BARRIERS AND FUTURE NEEDS TO PROMOTE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY......Page 341
10.1 Guatemala......Page 343
10.1.2 Zunil geothermal area......Page 344
10.1.3 Amatitlán geothermal area......Page 345
10.2 El Salvador......Page 346
10.2.3 San Vincente and Chinameca geothermal fields......Page 347
10.4 Nicaragua......Page 348
10.4.2 El Ñajo-Santa Isabel geothermal area......Page 349
10.4.4 Momotombo geothermal area......Page 350
10.5 Panama......Page 351
10.5.1 El Valle de Antón geothermal area......Page 353
10.5.2 Barú-Colorado geothermal area......Page 354
REFERENCES......Page 358
Country updates......Page 361
2 COSTA RICAN GEOTHERMAL DEVELOPMENT......Page 362
3 GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK......Page 363
4 MIRAVALLES GEOTHERMAL FIELD......Page 365
5 CHEMICAL AND THERMODYNAMIC CHANGES WITH TIME......Page 370
6 RESERVOIR MODELLING......Page 375
7.2 Las Pailas ? Borinquen geothermal areas......Page 376
7.3 Poco Sol geothermal area......Page 377
8 THE IMPORTANCE OF GEOTHERMAL ELECTRICITY GENERATION FOR COSTA RICA......Page 378
9 CONCLUSIONS......Page 379
REFERENCES......Page 380
1 INTRODUCTION......Page 382
2.1.1 Reservoir development ? previous studies......Page 383
2.1.2 Reservoir structure......Page 384
2.1.3 Origin of reservoir fluids......Page 385
2.1.4 Conceptual reservoir model......Page 387
2.2.3 Reservoir structure......Page 388
2.2.5 Geochemical studies......Page 389
2.2.7 Conceptual model......Page 390
2.3.2 Reservoir structure......Page 392
2.4 Cerro Prieto geothermal field......Page 393
3 CONCLUSIONS......Page 395
REFERENCES......Page 396
2 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION ACTIVITIES......Page 402
3 GEOCHEMICAL STUDIES ON THERMAL GASES AND WATERS......Page 404
4 DRILLING ACTIVITIES......Page 405
6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 406
REFERENCES......Page 407