Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment

Geothermal Energy - Renewable Energy and the Environment......Page 1
EBK1420075700-f......Page 2
Contents......Page 6
Series Editor’s Preface......Page 12
Preface......Page 15
Acknowledgments......Page 16
Series Editor......Page 17
Author......Page 18
The Historical Role of Fuel......Page 19
The Impact of Population Growth and per Capita Energy Use......Page 20
Fuel Emissions and Environmental Considerations......Page 21
No Fuel, Few Emissions......Page 22
Geothermal Energy Is a Flexible Energy Resource......Page 23
Generating Electrical Power for the Grid......Page 25
Synopsis.......Page 26
Further Information Sources......Page 27
Heat from Formation of the Core......Page 28
Heat from Radioactive Decay of Long-Lived Isotopes......Page 29
Radiation......Page 31
Conduction.......Page 32
Convection......Page 36
Plate Tectonics and the Distribution of Geothermal Resources......Page 37
Availability and Utilization of Geothermal Energy......Page 40
Spreading Centers......Page 43
Hot Spots.......Page 44
References......Page 45
Further Information......Page 46
Internal Energy.......Page 48
Enthalpy......Page 50
Carnot Cycle.......Page 51
Heat Capacity.......Page 52
Entropy......Page 54
Gibbs Function and Gibbs Energy (ΔG)......Page 55
The Standard State......Page 56
Thermodynamic Efficiency......Page 57
Case Study: The Thermodynamic Properties of Water and Rock–Water Interaction......Page 58
References......Page 64
Further Information......Page 65
Matrix Porosity and Permeability......Page 67
Definition of Matrix Permeability......Page 70
Fracture Porosity and Permeability......Page 71
Fracture Permeability......Page 72
Fracture Transmissivity......Page 73
Effect of Depth on Porosity and Permeability......Page 74
Hydrologic Properties of Real Geothermal Systems......Page 76
Case Study: Long Valley Caldera......Page 77
References......Page 81
Further Information.......Page 82
Why the Geochemistry of Geothermal Fluids Matters......Page 84
Water as a Chemical Agent......Page 85
Chemical Potentials, μ, and Gibbs Energy......Page 87
Equilibrium Constants......Page 89
Activity Coefficients, γ......Page 90
Affinity......Page 91
Ion Exchange......Page 92
Kinetics of Geothermal Reactions......Page 93
Gases in Geothermal Fluids......Page 95
Gas Partitioning between Liquid and Vapor......Page 96
Fluid Flow and Mixing in Natural Systems......Page 98
Simulating Reactive Transport......Page 99
Case Study: The Silica System......Page 100
Synopsis......Page 101
References......Page 102
Volcanoes: Active and Dormant......Page 105
Faulting and Associated Rock Alteration......Page 106
Surface Deposits......Page 107
Fluid Composition and Geothermometry......Page 109
Isotopes......Page 114
Aeromagnetic Surveys......Page 118
Resistivity and Magnetotelluric Surveys......Page 119
Gravity Surveys......Page 121
Seismicity and Reflection Seismology......Page 122
Temperature Measurements......Page 124
Multispectral Studies......Page 125
Case Study: Fallon, Nevada......Page 127
Synposis......Page 129
References......Page 130
Further Information......Page 132
Assessing a Geothermal Resource......Page 133
Uncertainty......Page 134
Establishing the Reservoir Volume......Page 136
Establishing the Reservoir Heat Content......Page 137
The Significance of Heat Capacity......Page 139
Efficiency of Heat Extraction......Page 140
Case Study: Establishing the United States Geothermal Resource......Page 143
Synopsis......Page 146
References......Page 147
Further Information......Page 148
Drilling for Ground Source Heat Pump and Direct Use Applications......Page 149
Drilling Equipment and Technology......Page 150
Drilling Fluid and Circulation......Page 151
Properties of Drilling Fluids......Page 153
Environmental Issues......Page 154
Confining Pressure and Rock Strength......Page 155
Temperature and Drilling Fluid Stability......Page 157
Casing and Grouting......Page 159
Packers......Page 160
Directional Drilling......Page 161
Case Study: Kakkonda, Japan......Page 163
References......Page 165
Further Information......Page 166
The History of Geothermal Power Production......Page 167
General Features of Geothermal Power Generation Facilities......Page 168
Dry Steam Resources......Page 169
Hydrothermal Systems......Page 175
Flashing......Page 177
Steam Quality......Page 179
Dual-Flash Systems......Page 180
The End State: Condensers and Cooling Towers......Page 181
Binary Generation Facilities: The Organic Rankine Cycle......Page 182
Geology......Page 184
Emissions......Page 186
Sustainability and Reinjection......Page 187
Synopsis......Page 190
References......Page 191
Further Information......Page 192
Basic Heat Pump Principles......Page 196
Thermodynamics of Heat Pumps......Page 199
Near-surface Thermal Reservoir......Page 200
Soil Characteristics......Page 201
Thermal Conductivity and Heat Capacity of Soils......Page 203
Calculating Loop Length......Page 204
Case Study: Weaverville......Page 206
Synopsis......Page 211
Further Information......Page 212
Assessing the Magnitude of the Direct Use Reservoir......Page 213
The Nature of Thermal Energy Transfer......Page 215
Heat Transfer by Conduction......Page 216
Heat Transfer by Convection......Page 219
Heat Transfer by Radiation......Page 220
Heat Transfer by Evaporation......Page 221
Evaluation and Operation......Page 222
Managing Return Temperature......Page 224
Materials Compatibility and Fluid Chemistry......Page 225
Aquaculture......Page 226
Drying......Page 228
Case Study: Canby Cascaded System......Page 229
Synopsis......Page 234
Further Information......Page 235
Carbon Dioxide......Page 236
Hydrogen Sulfide......Page 239
Solute Load and Resource Recovery......Page 240
Mechanics of Seismic Events......Page 242
Seismic Activity Associated with Geothermal Projects......Page 244
Seismicity Associated with Fluid Extraction......Page 247
Seismicity Associated with High-Pressure Injection of Fluid to Enhance Reservoir Permeability......Page 248
Ground Subsidence......Page 249
Water Use......Page 252
Land Use......Page 253
Synopsis......Page 255
References......Page 256
Additional Information......Page 258
Capacity Factors......Page 261
Levelized Costs......Page 263
Projected Energy Costs......Page 265
Rights to Develop a Resource and Permitting......Page 267
Initial Resource Assessments......Page 268
Production Wells and Feasibility Study......Page 269
Synopsis......Page 270
References......Page 271
Why Geopressured Reservoirs Form......Page 272
Challenges to Development......Page 273
Magnitude of the Resource......Page 275
Technological Requirements......Page 278
EGS Efforts to Date......Page 279
Drilling and Downhole Equipment......Page 280
Synopsis......Page 283
References......Page 284
Further Information......Page 285