General Chemistry, 9th Edition

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 2
Copyright......Page 3
Contents......Page 7
Essays......Page 18
Preface......Page 19
A Note to Students......Page 29
About the Authors......Page 38
About the Cover......Page 39
1 Chemistry and Measurement......Page 42
1.1 Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse......Page 43
1.2 Experiment and Explanation......Page 45
A Chemist Looks at. . . The Birth of the Post-it Note®......Page 46
1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass......Page 47
1.4 Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution......Page 49
1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures......Page 54
Instrumental Methods Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography......Page 55
1.6 SI Units......Page 60
1.7 Derived Units......Page 63
1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method)......Page 66
A Checklist for Review......Page 70
Learning Objectives......Page 71
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 72
Conceptual Problems......Page 73
Practice Problems......Page 74
General Problems......Page 77
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 80
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions......Page 82
2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter......Page 83
2.2 The Structure of the Atom......Page 85
2.3 Nuclear Structure; Isotopes......Page 88
2.4 Atomic Masses......Page 90
2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 92
A Chemist Looks at Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability......Page 95
2.7 Organic Compounds......Page 100
2.8 Naming Simple Compounds......Page 101
Chemical Reactions: Equations......Page 111
2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 112
A Checklist for Review......Page 115
Learning Objectives......Page 116
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 117
Concept Explorations......Page 118
Conceptual Problems......Page 119
Practice Problems......Page 120
General Problems......Page 124
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 125
3 Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations......Page 127
3.1 Molecular Mass and Formula Mass......Page 128
3.2 The Mole Concept......Page 130
3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula......Page 134
3.4 Elemental Analysis: Percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen......Page 136
3.5 Determining Formulas......Page 138
Instrumental Methods Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula......Page 139
Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions......Page 143
3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation......Page 144
3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction......Page 145
3.8 Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields......Page 148
Media Summary......Page 154
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 155
Concept Explorations......Page 156
Conceptual Problems......Page 157
Practice Problems......Page 158
General Problems......Page 162
Strategy Problems......Page 163
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 164
4 Chemical Reactions......Page 165
4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules......Page 166
4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations......Page 171
Types of Chemical Reactions......Page 174
4.3 Precipitation Reactions......Page 175
4.4 Acid–Base Reactions......Page 177
4.5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 185
4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation–Reduction Equations......Page 192
4.7 Molar Concentration......Page 195
4.8 Diluting Solutions......Page 197
4.9 Gravimetric Analysis......Page 199
4.10 Volumetric Analysis......Page 201
A Checklist for Review......Page 203
Media Summary......Page 204
Learning Objectives......Page 205
Concept Explorations......Page 206
Practice Problems......Page 208
General Problems......Page 212
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 214
5 The Gaseous State......Page 216
Gas Laws......Page 217
5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement......Page 218
5.2 Empirical Gas Laws......Page 219
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 228
A Chemist Looks at Nitrogen Monoxide Gas and Biological Signaling......Page 227
5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes......Page 234
5.5 Gas Mixtures; Law of Partial Pressures......Page 235
Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 239
5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas......Page 240
5.7 Molecular Speeds; Diffusion and Effusion......Page 242
5.8 Real Gases......Page 248
A Chemist Looks at Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect......Page 251
Media Summary......Page 253
Learning Objectives......Page 254
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 255
Concept Explorations......Page 256
Conceptual Problems......Page 257
Practice Problems......Page 258
General Problems......Page 261
Strategy Problems......Page 262
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 263
6 Thermochemistry......Page 264
Understanding Heats of Reaction......Page 265
6.1 Energy and Its Units......Page 266
6.2 Heat of Reaction......Page 269
6.3 Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change......Page 272
6.4 Thermochemical Equations......Page 273
6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction......Page 276
6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction......Page 277
Using Heats of Reaction......Page 281
6.7 Hess’s Law......Page 282
6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation......Page 285
6.9 Fuels—Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels......Page 290
Media Summary......Page 293
Learning Objectives......Page 294
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 295
Conceptual Problems......Page 296
Practice Problems......Page 297
General Problems......Page 300
Strategy Problems......Page 302
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 303
7 Quantum Theory of the Atom......Page 304
Light Waves, Photons, and the Bohr Theory......Page 305
7.1 The Wave Nature of Light......Page 306
7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons......Page 309
A Chemist Looks at Zapping Hamburger with Gamma Rays......Page 311
7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 312
A Chemist Looks at Lasers and Compact Disc Players......Page 315
7.4 Quantum Mechanics......Page 318
Instrumental Methods Scanning Tunneling Microscopy......Page 321
7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals......Page 322
Media Summary......Page 327
Self-Assessment and Review Problems......Page 328
Concept Explorations......Page 329
Practice Problems......Page 330
General Problems......Page 332
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 333
8 Electron Configurations and Periodicity......Page 334
8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle......Page 335
Instrumental Methods Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)......Page 337
8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table......Page 340
8.3 Writing Electron Con.gurations Using the Periodic Table......Page 345
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund’s Rule......Page 349
A Chemist Looks at Levitating Frogs and People......Page 351
8.5 Mendeleev’s Predictions from the Periodic Table......Page 352
8.6 Some Periodic Properties......Page 353
8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements......Page 359
Media Summary......Page 362
Self-Assessment and Review Problems......Page 363
Concept Explorations......Page 364
Practice Problems......Page 365
General Problems......Page 366
Strategy Problems......Page 367
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 368
9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding......Page 369
9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds......Page 370
A Chemist Looks at Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry......Page 376
9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions......Page 377
9.3 Ionic Radii......Page 380
Covalent Bonds......Page 382
9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds......Page 383
A Chemist Looks at Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin......Page 385
9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity......Page 386
9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas......Page 388
9.7 Delocalized Bonding: Resonance......Page 391
9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 393
9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas......Page 396
9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order......Page 399
9.11 Bond Energy......Page 400
Instrumental Methods Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations of Chemical Bonds......Page 403
Media Summary......Page 405
Learning Objectives......Page 406
Concept Explorations......Page 407
Conceptual Problems......Page 408
Practice Problems......Page 409
General Problems......Page 411
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 412
10 Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding Theory......Page 414
10.1 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model......Page 416
10.2 Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry......Page 424
A Chemist Looks at Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules......Page 425
10.3 Valence Bond Theory......Page 430
10.4 Description of Multiple Bonding......Page 436
Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 440
10.5 Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 441
10.6 Electron Con.gurations of Diatomic Molecules of the Second-Period Elements......Page 443
10.7 Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding......Page 446
A Chemist Looks at Human Vision......Page 448
A Checklist for Review......Page 449
Learning Objectives......Page 451
Concept Explorations......Page 452
Conceptual Problems......Page 453
Practice Problems......Page 454
General Problems......Page 456
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 457
11 States of Matter; Liquids and Solids......Page 459
11.1 Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids......Page 460
11.2 Phase Transitions......Page 461
11.3 Phase Diagrams......Page 471
A Chemist Looks at Removing Caffeine from Coffee......Page 474
11.4 Properties of Liquids: Surface Tension and Viscosity......Page 475
11.5 Intermolecular Forces; Explaining Liquid Properties......Page 477
A Chemist Looks at Gecko Toes, Sticky But Not Tacky......Page 484
11.6 Classi.cation of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units......Page 485
11.7 Crystalline Solids; Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells......Page 489
11.8 Structures of Some Crystalline Solids......Page 492
A Chemist Looks at Liquid-Crystal Displays......Page 493
11.9 Calculations Involving Unit-Cell Dimensions......Page 499
11.10 Determining Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction......Page 501
Instrumental Methods Automated X-Ray Diffractometry......Page 503
A Chemist Looks at Water (A Special Substance for Planet Earth)......Page 504
Media Summary......Page 506
Learning Objectives......Page 507
Self-Assessment and Review Problems......Page 508
Concept Explorations......Page 509
Conceptual Problems......Page 510
Practice Problems......Page 511
General Problems......Page 514
Strategy Problems......Page 516
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 517
12 Solutions......Page 519
12.1 Types of Solutions......Page 520
12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process......Page 522
A Chemist Looks at Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia......Page 527
12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility......Page 528
12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration......Page 531
12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution......Page 537
12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression......Page 541
12.7 Osmosis......Page 545
12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions......Page 548
Colloid Formation......Page 549
12.9 Colloids......Page 550
A Chemist Looks at The World’s Smallest Test Tubes......Page 553
A Checklist for Review......Page 555
Learning Objectives......Page 556
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 557
Conceptual Problems......Page 558
Practice Problems......Page 559
General Problems......Page 561
Strategy Problems......Page 562
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 563
13 Rates of Reaction......Page 564
Reaction Rates......Page 565
13.1 Definition of Reaction Rate......Page 566
13.2 Experimental Determination of Rate......Page 570
13.3 Dependence of Rate on Concentration......Page 571
13.4 Change of Concentration with Time......Page 577
13.5 Temperature and Rate; Collision and Transition-State Theories......Page 585
13.6 Arrhenius Equation......Page 589
13.7 Elementary Reactions......Page 591
13.8 The Rate Law and the Mechanism......Page 595
13.9 Catalysis......Page 601
A Checklist for Review......Page 605
Media Summary......Page 607
Self-Assessment and Review Problems......Page 608
Conceptual Problems......Page 610
Practice Problems......Page 612
General Problems......Page 616
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 619
14 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 621
14.1 Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 623
14.2 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 626
14.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria; Solvents in Homogeneous Equilibria......Page 632
A Chemist Looks at Slime Molds and Leopards’ Spots......Page 633
14.4 Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant......Page 635
14.5 Predicting the Direction of Reaction......Page 636
14.6 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 638
14.7 Removing Products or Adding Reactants......Page 643
14.8 Changing the Pressure and Temperature......Page 645
14.9 Effect of a Catalyst......Page 650
Media Summary......Page 652
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 653
Concept Explorations......Page 654
Conceptual Problems......Page 655
Practice Problems......Page 656
General Problems......Page 659
Strategy Problems......Page 662
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 663
15 Acids and Bases......Page 664
Acid–Base Concepts......Page 665
15.2 Brønsted–Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 666
15.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 669
A Chemist Looks at Taking Your Medicine......Page 671
15.4 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases......Page 672
15.5 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength......Page 674
15.6 Self-Ionization of Water......Page 677
15.7 Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base......Page 678
15.8 The pH of a Solution......Page 680
A Checklist for Review......Page 684
Learning Objectives......Page 685
Concept Explorations......Page 686
Conceptual Problems......Page 687
Practice Problems......Page 688
General Problems......Page 690
Strategy Problems......Page 691
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 692
16 Acid–Base Equilibria......Page 693
16.1 Acid-Ionization Equilibria......Page 694
16.2 Polyprotic Acids......Page 701
A Chemist Looks at Acid Rain......Page 703
16.3 Base-Ionization Equilibria......Page 705
16.4 Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions......Page 708
16.5 Common-Ion Effect......Page 713
16.6 Buffers......Page 716
16.7 Acid–Base Titration Curves......Page 723
A Checklist for Review......Page 729
Learning Objectives......Page 730
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 731
Conceptual Problems......Page 732
Practice Problems......Page 733
General Problems......Page 736
Strategy Problems......Page 738
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 739
17Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria......Page 740
17.1 The Solubility Product Constant......Page 741
17.2 Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect......Page 746
17.3 Precipitation Calculations......Page 748
17.4 Effect of pH on Solubility......Page 753
A Chemist Looks at Limestone Caves......Page 755
17.5 Complex-Ion Formation......Page 756
17.6 Complex Ions and Solubility......Page 759
17.7 Qualitative Analysis of Metal Ions......Page 761
Media Summary......Page 764
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 765
Conceptual Problems......Page 766
Practice Problems......Page 767
General Problems......Page 768
Strategy Problems......Page 770
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 771
18 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium......Page 772
18.1 First Law of Thermodynamics; Enthalpy......Page 773
Spontaneous Processes and Entropy......Page 776
18.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 777
18.3 Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 782
18.4 Free Energy and Spontaneity......Page 786
18.5 Interpretation of Free Energy......Page 790
A Chemist Looks at Coupling of Reactions......Page 791
Free Energy and Equilibrium Constants......Page 793
18.6 Relating  G  to the Equilibrium Constant......Page 794
18.7 Change of Free Energy with Temperature......Page 796
Media Summary......Page 800
Learning Objectives......Page 801
Concept Explorations......Page 802
Conceptual Problems......Page 803
Practice Problems......Page 804
General Problems......Page 806
Strategy Problems......Page 809
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 810
19 Electrochemistry......Page 811
19.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions......Page 812
19.2 Construction of Voltaic Cells......Page 817
19.3 Notation for Voltaic Cells......Page 820
19.4 Cell Potential......Page 822
19.5 Standard Cell Potentials and Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 824
19.6 Equilibrium Constants from Cell Potentials......Page 831
19.7 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration......Page 834
19.8 Some Commercial Voltaic Cells......Page 838
19.9 Electrolysis of Molten Salts......Page 841
19.10 Aqueous Electrolysis......Page 843
19.11 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis......Page 847
Media Summary......Page 850
Learning Objectives......Page 851
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 852
Conceptual Problems......Page 853
Practice Problems......Page 854
General Problems......Page 857
Strategy Problems......Page 859
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 860
20 Nuclear Chemistry......Page 861
20.1 Radioactivity......Page 862
A Chemist Looks at Magic Numbers......Page 868
20.2 Nuclear Bombardment Reactions......Page 873
20.3 Radiations and Matter: Detection and Biological Effects......Page 877
20.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay......Page 879
20.5 Applications of Radioactive Isotopes......Page 886
Energy of Nuclear Reactions......Page 889
A Chemist Looks at Positron Emission Tomography (PET)......Page 890
20.6 Mass–Energy Calculations......Page 891
20.7 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion......Page 895
A Checklist for Review......Page 898
Learning Objectives......Page 900
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 901
Practice Problems......Page 902
General Problems......Page 904
Strategy Problems......Page 905
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 906
21 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements......Page 907
21.1 General Observations About the Main-Group Elements......Page 908
21.2 Metals: Characteristics and Production......Page 911
21.3 Bonding in Metals......Page 915
A Chemist Looks at Superconductivity......Page 917
21.4 Group IA: The Alkali Metals......Page 918
21.5 Group IIA: The Alkaline Earth Metals......Page 924
21.6 Group IIIA and Group IVA Metals......Page 929
Chemistry of the Nonmetals......Page 933
21.7 Hydrogen......Page 934
21.8 Group IVA: The Carbon Family......Page 936
21.9 Group VA: Nitrogen and the Phosphorous Family......Page 941
A Chemist Looks at Buckminsterfullerene-A Third Form of Carbon......Page 942
21.10 Group VIA: Oxygen and the Sulfur Family......Page 949
21.11 Group VIIA: The Halogens......Page 955
21.12 Group VIIIA: The Noble Gases......Page 959
A Checklist for Review......Page 960
Media Summary......Page 962
Self-Assessment and Review Questions......Page 963
Practice Problems......Page 965
General Problems......Page 969
Strategy Problems......Page 970
22 The Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds......Page 971
22.1 Periodic Trends in the Transition Elements......Page 972
22.2 The Chemistry of Two Transition Elements......Page 976
22.3 Formation and Structure of Complexes......Page 979
22.4 Naming Coordination Compounds......Page 983
A Chemist Looks at Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability......Page 984
22.5 Structure and Isomerism in Coordination Compounds......Page 987
22.6 Valence Bond Theory of Complexes......Page 994
22.7 Crystal Field Theory......Page 995
A Chemist Looks at The Cooperative Release of Oxygen from Oxyhemoglobin......Page 1002
A Checklist for Review......Page 1003
Learning Objectives......Page 1004
Self-Assessment and Review Self-Assessment and Review......Page 1005
Practice Problems......Page 1006
Strategy Problems......Page 1008
23 Organic Chemistry......Page 1009
23.1 The Bonding of Carbon......Page 1010
23.2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes......Page 1011
23.3 Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1018
23.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1022
23.5 Naming Hydrocarbons......Page 1025
23.6 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen......Page 1032
23.7 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen......Page 1036
Media Summary......Page 1038
Self-Assessment and Review Self-Assessment and Review......Page 1039
Conceptual Problems......Page 1040
Practice Problems......Page 1041
General Problems......Page 1043
Strategy Problems......Page 1044
24 Polymer Materials: Synthetic and Biological......Page 1045
Synthetic Polymers......Page 1046
24.1 Synthesis of Organic Polymers......Page 1047
A Chemist Looks at The Discovery of Nylon......Page 1049
24.2 Electrically Conducting Polymers......Page 1051
24.3 Proteins......Page 1053
24.4 Nucleic Acids......Page 1058
A Chemist Looks at Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic Force Microscopy......Page 1066
Media Summary......Page 1067
Conceptual Problems......Page 1068
Practice Problems......Page 1069
General Problems......Page 1070
Strategy Problems......Page 1071
A. Mathematical Skills......Page 1072
B. Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures......Page 1078
C. Thermodynamic Quantities for Substances and Ions at 25 C......Page 1079
D. Electron Con.gurations of Atoms in the Ground State......Page 1083
E. Acid-Ionization Constants at 25 C......Page 1084
F. Base-Ionization Constants at 25 C......Page 1085
G. Solubility Product Constants at 25 C......Page 1086
I. Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25 C......Page 1087
Answers to Exercises......Page 1089
Answers to Concept Checks......Page 1093
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions......Page 1096
Answers to Selected Odd-Numbered Problems......Page 1097
Glossary......Page 1112
Credits......Page 1126
Index......Page 1127