General Chemistry

Front Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
Essays......Page 22
Preface......Page 24
1 Chemistry and Measurement......Page 44
1.1 Modern Chemistry: A Brief Glimpse......Page 45
1.2 Experiment and Explanation......Page 47
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Birth of the Post-it Note......Page 48
1.3 Law of Conservation of Mass......Page 49
1.4 Matter: Physical State and Chemical Constitution......Page 52
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Separation of Mixtures by Chromatography......Page 57
1.5 Measurement and Significant Figures......Page 59
1.6 SI Units......Page 63
1.7 Derived Units......Page 67
1.8 Units and Dimensional Analysis (Factor-Label Method)......Page 70
A Checklist for Review......Page 74
Conceptual Problems......Page 75
Practice Problems......Page 76
General Problems......Page 80
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 82
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 83
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions......Page 84
2.1 Atomic Theory of Matter......Page 85
2.2 The Structure of the Atom......Page 88
2.3 Nuclear Structure; Isotopes......Page 91
2.4 Atomic Weights......Page 93
2.5 Periodic Table of the Elements......Page 96
2.6 Chemical Formulas; Molecular and Ionic Substances......Page 98
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Thirty Seconds on the Island of Stability......Page 99
2.7 Organic Compounds......Page 104
2.8 Naming Simple Compounds......Page 105
2.9 Writing Chemical Equations......Page 116
2.10 Balancing Chemical Equations......Page 117
A Checklist for Review......Page 119
Conceptual Problems......Page 121
Practice Problems......Page 122
General Problems......Page 126
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 128
3 Calculations with Chemical Formulas and Equations......Page 129
3.1 Molecular Weight and Formula Weight......Page 130
3.2 The Mole Concept......Page 132
3.3 Mass Percentages from the Formula......Page 136
3.4 Elemental Analysis: Percentages of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen......Page 138
3.5 Determining Formulas......Page 140
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Mass Spectrometry and Molecular Formula......Page 141
Stoichiometry: Quantitative Relations in Chemical Reactions......Page 145
3.6 Molar Interpretation of a Chemical Equation......Page 146
3.7 Amounts of Substances in a Chemical Reaction......Page 147
3.8 Limiting Reactant; Theoretical and Percentage Yields......Page 150
A Checklist for Review......Page 156
Conceptual Problems......Page 157
Practice Problems......Page 158
General Problems......Page 163
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 164
4 Chemical Reactions......Page 166
4.1 Ionic Theory of Solutions and Solubility Rules......Page 167
4.2 Molecular and Ionic Equations......Page 172
4.3 Precipitation Reactions......Page 176
4.4 Acid–Base Reactions......Page 179
4.5 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions......Page 187
4.6 Balancing Simple Oxidation–Reduction Equations......Page 195
4.7 Molar Concentration......Page 198
4.8 Diluting Solutions......Page 200
4.9 Gravimetric Analysis......Page 202
4.10 Volumetric Analysis......Page 204
A Checklist for Review......Page 206
Conceptual Problems......Page 208
Practice Problems......Page 209
General Problems......Page 213
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 215
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 217
5 The Gaseous State......Page 218
5.1 Gas Pressure and Its Measurement......Page 219
5.2 Empirical Gas Laws......Page 221
5.3 The Ideal Gas Law......Page 230
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Nitric Oxide Gas and Biological Signaling......Page 231
5.4 Stoichiometry Problems Involving Gas Volumes......Page 237
5.5 Gas Mixtures; Law of Partial Pressures......Page 239
Kinetic-Molecular Theory......Page 243
5.6 Kinetic Theory of an Ideal Gas......Page 244
5.7 Molecular Speeds; Diffusion and Effusion......Page 247
5.8 Real Gases......Page 252
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Carbon Dioxide Gas and the Greenhouse Effect......Page 256
A Checklist for Review......Page 258
Review Questions......Page 259
Conceptual Problems......Page 260
Practice Problems......Page 261
General Problems......Page 264
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 265
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 266
6 Thermochemistry......Page 267
6.1 Energy and Its Units......Page 268
6.2 Heat of Reaction......Page 271
6.3 Enthalpy and Enthalpy Change......Page 274
6.4 Thermochemical Equations......Page 277
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lucifers and Other Matches......Page 279
6.5 Applying Stoichiometry to Heats of Reaction......Page 280
6.6 Measuring Heats of Reaction......Page 281
6.7 Hess\'s Law......Page 285
6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation......Page 289
6.9 Fuels-Foods, Commercial Fuels, and Rocket Fuels......Page 294
A Checklist for Review......Page 297
Conceptual Problems......Page 298
Practice Problems......Page 299
General Problems......Page 302
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 305
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 306
7 Quantum Theory of the Atom......Page 307
7.1 The Wave Nature of Light......Page 308
7.2 Quantum Effects and Photons......Page 312
7.3 The Bohr Theory of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 314
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Lasers and Compact Disc Players......Page 319
7.4 Quantum Mechanics......Page 321
7.5 Quantum Numbers and Atomic Orbitals......Page 325
A Checklist for Review......Page 331
Conceptual Problems......Page 332
Practice Problems......Page 333
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 335
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 336
8 Electron Configurations and Periodicity......Page 337
8.1 Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle......Page 338
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)......Page 341
8.2 Building-Up Principle and the Periodic Table......Page 343
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS X Rays, Atomic Numbers, and Orbital Structure (Photoelectron Spectroscopy)......Page 348
8.3 Writing Electron Configurations Using the Periodic Table......Page 349
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hund\'s Rule......Page 352
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Levitating Frogs and People......Page 354
8.5 Mendeleev\'s Predictions from the Periodic Table......Page 355
8.6 Some Periodic Properties......Page 356
8.7 Periodicity in the Main-Group Elements......Page 363
A Checklist for Review......Page 366
Conceptual Problems......Page 367
Practice Problems......Page 368
General Problems......Page 369
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 370
9 Ionic and Covalent Bonding......Page 371
9.1 Describing Ionic Bonds......Page 372
9.2 Electron Configurations of Ions......Page 377
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Ionic Liquids and Green Chemistry......Page 378
9.3 Ionic Radii......Page 382
9.4 Describing Covalent Bonds......Page 384
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Chemical Bonds in Nitroglycerin......Page 387
9.5 Polar Covalent Bonds; Electronegativity......Page 388
9.6 Writing Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas......Page 390
9.7 Delocalized Bonding: Resonance......Page 393
9.8 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 395
9.9 Formal Charge and Lewis Formulas......Page 398
9.10 Bond Length and Bond Order......Page 401
9.11 Bond Energy......Page 402
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Infrared Spectroscopy and Vibrations of Chemical Bonds......Page 406
A Checklist for Review......Page 408
Conceptual Problems......Page 409
Practice Problems......Page 410
General Problems......Page 412
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 413
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 414
10 Molecular Geometry and Chemical Bonding Theory......Page 415
10.1 The Valence-Shell Electron-Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Model......Page 417
Central Atom with Five or Six Valence-Shell Electron Pairs......Page 423
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Left-Handed and Right-Handed Molecules......Page 427
10.2 Dipole Moment and Molecular Geometry......Page 428
10.3 Valence Bond Theory......Page 431
10.4 Description of Multiple Bonding......Page 438
10.5 Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 443
10.6 Electron Configurations of Diatomic Molecules of the Second-Period Elements......Page 446
10.7 Molecular Orbitals and Delocalized Bonding......Page 450
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Human Vision......Page 452
A Checklist for Review......Page 453
Conceptual Problems......Page 455
Practice Problems......Page 456
General Problems......Page 458
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 459
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 460
11 States of Matter; Liquids and Solids......Page 461
11.1 Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids......Page 462
11.2 Phase Transitions......Page 463
11.3 Phase Diagrams......Page 473
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Removing Caffeine from Coffee......Page 476
11.4 Properties of Liquids: Surface Tension and Viscosity......Page 477
11.5 Intermolecular Forces; Explaining Liquid Properties......Page 479
11.6 Classification of Solids by Type of Attraction of Units......Page 487
11.7 Crystalline Solids; Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells......Page 491
11.8 Structures of Some Crystalline Solids......Page 495
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Liquid-Crystal Displays......Page 496
11.9 Calculations Involving Unit-Cell Dimensions......Page 503
11.10 Determining Crystal Structure by X-Ray Diffraction......Page 505
INSTRUMENTAL METHODS Automated X-Ray Diffractometry......Page 507
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Water (A Special Substance for Planet Earth)......Page 508
A Checklist for Review......Page 510
Conceptual Problems......Page 512
Practice Problems......Page 513
General Problems......Page 517
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 519
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 520
12 Solutions......Page 521
12.1 Types of Solutions......Page 522
12.2 Solubility and the Solution Process......Page 524
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Hemoglobin Solubility and Sickle-Cell Anemia......Page 529
12.3 Effects of Temperature and Pressure on Solubility......Page 530
12.4 Ways of Expressing Concentration......Page 533
12.5 Vapor Pressure of a Solution......Page 539
12.6 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression......Page 543
12.7 Osmosis......Page 547
12.8 Colligative Properties of Ionic Solutions......Page 551
Colloid Formation......Page 552
A Checklist for Review......Page 557
Review Questions......Page 559
Conceptual Problems......Page 560
Practice Problems......Page 561
General Problems......Page 563
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 564
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 565
13 Materials of Technology......Page 566
Metals and Metallurgy......Page 567
13.1 Natural Sources of the Metallic Elements......Page 568
13.2 Metallurgy......Page 570
13.3 Bonding in Metals......Page 577
Nonmetallic Materials......Page 580
13.4 Diamond, Graphite, the Fullerenes, and Nanotechnology......Page 581
13.5 Semiconductors......Page 585
13.6 Silicon, Silica, and Silicates......Page 589
13.7 Ceramics......Page 593
13.8 Composites......Page 595
A Checklist for Review......Page 596
Review Questions......Page 597
Practice Problems......Page 598
General Problems......Page 599
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 600
14 Rates of Reaction......Page 601
Reaction Rates......Page 602
14.1 Definition of Reaction Rate......Page 603
14.2 Experimental Determination of Rate......Page 607
14.3 Dependence of Rate on Concentration......Page 609
14.4 Change of Concentration with Time......Page 615
14.5 Temperature and Rate; Collision and Transition-State Theories......Page 624
14.6 Arrhenius Equation......Page 628
14.7 Elementary Reactions......Page 631
14.8 The Rate Law and the Mechanism......Page 635
14.9 Catalysis......Page 640
A Checklist for Review......Page 645
Review Questions......Page 648
Conceptual Problems......Page 649
Practice Problems......Page 650
General Problems......Page 655
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 658
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 659
15 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 660
15.1 Chemical Equilibrium—A Dynamic Equilibrium......Page 661
15.2 The Equilibrium Constant......Page 664
15.3 Heterogeneous Equilibria; Solvents in Homogeneous Equilibria......Page 671
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Slime Molds and Leopards\' Spots......Page 672
15.4 Qualitatively Interpreting the Equilibrium Constant......Page 674
15.5 Predicting the Direction of Reaction......Page 675
15.6 Calculating Equilibrium Concentrations......Page 677
15.7 Removing Products or Adding Reactants......Page 682
15.8 Changing the Pressure and Temperature......Page 685
15.9 Effect of a Catalyst......Page 690
Review Questions......Page 692
Conceptual Problems......Page 693
Practice Problems......Page 694
General Problems......Page 698
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 701
16 Acids and Bases......Page 702
16.1 Arrhenius Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 703
16.2 Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 705
16.3 Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases......Page 707
Acid and Base Strengths......Page 709
16.4 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases......Page 710
16.5 Molecular Structure and Acid Strength......Page 713
16.6 Self-Ionization of Water......Page 716
16.7 Solutions of a Strong Acid or Base......Page 717
16.8 The pH of a Solution......Page 720
A Checklist for Review......Page 725
Review Questions......Page 726
Practice Problems......Page 727
General Problems......Page 730
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 731
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 732
17 Acid-Base Equilibria......Page 733
17.1 Acid-Ionization Equilibria......Page 734
17.2 Polyprotic Acids......Page 741
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Acid Rain......Page 743
17.3 Base-Ionization Equilibria......Page 745
17.4 Acid–Base Properties of Salt Solutions......Page 748
17.5 Common-Ion Effect......Page 753
17.6 Buffers......Page 756
17.7 Acid–Base Titration Curves......Page 763
A Checklist for Review......Page 767
Review Questions......Page 768
Conceptual Problems......Page 769
Practice Problems......Page 770
General Problems......Page 772
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 775
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 776
18 Solubility and Complex-Ion Equilibria......Page 777
18.1 The Solubility Product Constant......Page 778
18.2 Solubility and the Common-Ion Effect......Page 782
18.3 Precipitation Calculations......Page 785
18.4 Effect of pH on Solubility......Page 789
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Limestone Caves......Page 791
18.5 Complex-Ion Formation......Page 792
18.6 Complex Ions and Solubility......Page 795
An Application of Solubility Equilibria......Page 797
A Checklist for Review......Page 800
Conceptual Problems......Page 801
Practice Problems......Page 802
General Problems......Page 803
Cumulative-Skills Problems •......Page 805
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 806
19 Thermodynamics and Equilibrium......Page 807
19.1 First Law of Thermodynamics; Enthalpy......Page 808
Spontaneous Processes and Entropy......Page 811
19.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 812
19.3 Standard Entropies and the Third Law of Thermodynamics......Page 818
19.4 Free Energy and Spontaneity......Page 822
19.5 Interpretation of Free Energy......Page 827
19.6 Relating  G  to the Equilibrium Constant......Page 829
19.7 Change of Free Energy with Temperature......Page 833
A Checklist for Review......Page 836
Review Questions......Page 837
Conceptual Problems......Page 838
Practice Problems......Page 839
General Problems......Page 841
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 844
20 Electrochemistry......Page 845
20.1 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions in Acidic and Basic Solutions......Page 846
20.2 Construction of Voltaic Cells......Page 851
20.3 Notation for Voltaic Cells......Page 854
20.4 Electromotive Force......Page 856
20.5 Standard Cell emfs and Standard Electrode Potentials......Page 858
20.6 Equilibrium Constants from emfs......Page 866
20.7 Dependence of emf on Concentration......Page 869
20.8 Some Commercial Voltaic Cells......Page 873
20.9 Electrolysis of Molten Salts......Page 877
20.10 Aqueous Electrolysis......Page 879
20.11 Stoichiometry of Electrolysis......Page 884
A Checklist for Review......Page 886
Review Questions......Page 887
Conceptual Problems......Page 888
Practice Problems......Page 889
General Problems......Page 893
Cumulative-Skills Problems......Page 895
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 896
21 Nuclear Chemistry......Page 897
21.1 Radioactivity......Page 898
21.2 Nuclear Bombardment Reactions......Page 907
21.3 Radiations and Matter: Detection and Biological Effects......Page 912
21.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay......Page 914
21.5 Applications of Radioactive Isotopes......Page 921
Energy of Nuclear Reactions......Page 925
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Positron Emission Tomography (PET)......Page 926
21.6 Mass–Energy Calculations......Page 927
21.7 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion......Page 931
A Checklist for Review......Page 935
Conceptual Problems......Page 937
Practice Problems......Page 938
General Problems......Page 941
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 942
22 Chemistry of the Main-Group Elements......Page 943
22.1 General Observations About the Main-Group Elements......Page 944
Chemistry of the Main-Group Metals......Page 946
22.2 Group IA: The Alkali Metals......Page 947
22.3 Group IIA: The Alkaline Earth Metals......Page 953
22.4 Group IIIA and Group IVA Metals......Page 959
Chemistry of the Nonmetals......Page 963
22.5 Hydrogen......Page 964
22.6 Group IVA: The Carbon Family......Page 967
22.7 Group VA: Nitrogen and the Phosphorus Family......Page 972
22.8 Group VIA: Oxygen and the Sulfur Family......Page 980
22.9 Group VIIA: The Halogens......Page 986
22.10 Group VIIIA: The Noble Gases......Page 990
A Checklist for Review......Page 992
Review Questions......Page 993
Practice Problems......Page 995
General Problems......Page 998
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 1000
23 The Transition Elements and Coordination Compounds......Page 1001
23.1 Periodic Trends in the Transition Elements......Page 1002
23.2 The Chemistry of Two Transition Elements......Page 1007
Complex Ions and Coordination Compounds......Page 1010
23.3 Formation and Structure of Complexes......Page 1011
23.4 Naming Coordination Compounds......Page 1015
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Salad Dressing and Chelate Stability......Page 1016
23.5 Structure and Isomerism in Coordination Compounds......Page 1019
23.6 Valence Bond Theory of Complexes......Page 1027
23.7 Crystal Field Theory......Page 1028
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Cooperative Release of Oxygen Oxyhemoglobin......Page 1035
A Checklist for Review......Page 1036
Review Questions......Page 1037
Practice Problems......Page 1038
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 1040
24 Organic Chemistry......Page 1041
Hydrocarbons......Page 1042
24.2 Alkanes and Cycloalkanes......Page 1043
24.3 Alkenes and Alkynes......Page 1051
24.4 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 1055
24.5 Naming Hydrocarbons......Page 1058
24.6 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen......Page 1065
24.7 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen......Page 1070
Review Questions......Page 1072
Conceptual Problems......Page 1073
Practice Problems......Page 1074
General Problems......Page 1077
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 1078
25 Polymer Materials: Synthetic and Biological......Page 1079
25.1 Synthesis of Organic Polymers......Page 1080
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT The Discovery of Nylon......Page 1083
25.2 Electrically Conducting Polymers......Page 1085
25.3 Proteins......Page 1087
25.4 Nucleic Acids......Page 1092
A CHEMIST LOOKS AT Tobacco Mosaic Virus and Atomic Force Microscopy......Page 1101
Review Questions......Page 1102
Practice Problems......Page 1103
General Problems......Page 1104
Online Study Center Media Summary......Page 1105
A. Mathematical Skills......Page 1106
C. Thermodynamic Quantities for Substances and Ions at 25 C......Page 1113
D. Electron Configurations of Atoms in the Ground State......Page 1118
E. Acid-Ionization Constants at 25 C......Page 1120
G. Solubility Product Constants at 25 C......Page 1121
H. Formation Constants of Complex Ions at 25 C......Page 1122
I. Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials in Aqueous Solution at 25 C......Page 1123
Answers to Exercises......Page 1125
Answers to Concept Checks......Page 1129
Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems......Page 1132
Glossary......Page 1149
Photo Credits......Page 1167
Index......Page 1169