General Chemistry

Cover......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 8
List of Animations......Page 15
Preface......Page 16
A Note to the Student......Page 23
CHAPTER 1 Introduction......Page 24
1.2 The Scientific Method......Page 25
1.3 Classifications of Matter......Page 27
1.4 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter......Page 30
1.5 Measurement......Page 31
1.6 Handling Numbers......Page 36
1.7 Dimensional Analysis in Solving Problems......Page 41
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 45
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 46
CHAPTER 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions......Page 52
2.1 The Atomic Theory\n......Page 53
2.2 The Structure of the Atom......Page 54
2.3 Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Isotopes......Page 59
2.4 The Periodic Table......Page 61
2.5 Molecules and Ions......Page 62
2.6 Chemical Formulas......Page 64
2.7 Naming Compounds......Page 67
2.8 Introduction to Organic Compounds......Page 75
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 76
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 77
CHAPTER 3  Stoichiometry......Page 83
3.1 Atomic Mass......Page 84
3.2 Avogadro’s Number and the Molar Mass of an Element......Page 85
3.3 Molecular Mass......Page 89
3.4 The Mass Spectrometer......Page 91
3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds......Page 93
3.6 Experimental Determination of Empirical Formulas......Page 95
3.7 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations......Page 98
3.8 Amounts of Reactants and Products......Page 102
3.9 Limiting Reagents......Page 106
3.10 Reaction Yield......Page 109
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 111
CHAPTER 4 Reactions in Aqueous Solutions......Page 120
4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions......Page 121
4.2 Precipitation Reactions......Page 123
4.3 Acid-Base Reactions......Page 128
4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions......Page 132
4.5 Concentration of Solutions......Page 141
4.6 Solution Stoichiometry......Page 145
KEY WORDS......Page 151
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 152
CHAPTER 5 Gases......Page 159
5.1 Substances That Exist as Gases......Page 160
5.2 Pressure of a Gas......Page 161
5.3 The Gas Laws......Page 164
5.4 The Ideal Gas Equation......Page 169
5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures......Page 175
5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases......Page 180
5.7 Deviation from Ideal Behavior......Page 187
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 189
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 190
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 191
CHAPTER 6 Energy Relationships in Chemical Reactions......Page 199
6.1 The Nature of Energy and Types of Energy......Page 200
6.2 Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions......Page 201
6.3 Introduction to Thermodynamics......Page 202
6.4 Enthalpy of Chemical Reactions......Page 208
6.5 Calorimetry......Page 214
6.6 Standard Enthalpy of Formation and Reaction......Page 219
KEY WORDS......Page 225
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 226
CHAPTER 7 The Electronic Structure of Atoms......Page 234
7.1 From Classical Physics to Quantum Theory\n......Page 235
7.2 The Photoelectric Effect......Page 239
7.3 Bohr’s Theory of the Hydrogen Atom......Page 241
7.4 The Dual Nature of the Electron......Page 245
7.5 Quantum Mechanics......Page 248
7.6 Quantum Numbers......Page 249
7.7 Atomic Orbitals......Page 251
7.8 Electron Configuration......Page 255
7.9 The Building-Up Principle......Page 262
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 265
KEY WORDS......Page 266
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 267
CHAPTER 8 The Periodic Table......Page 274
8.1 Development of the Periodic Table......Page 275
8.2 Periodic Classification of the Elements......Page 276
8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties......Page 279
8.4 Ionization Energy......Page 285
8.5 Electron Affinity......Page 289
8.6 Variation in Chemical Properties of the Representative Elements......Page 291
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 301
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 302
CHAPTER 9 Chemical Bonding I: The Covalent Bond......Page 308
9.1 Lewis Dot Symbols......Page 309
9.2 The Ionic Bond......Page 310
9.3 Lattice Energy of Ionic Compounds......Page 312
9.4 The Covalent Bond......Page 314
9.5 Electronegativity......Page 316
9.6 Writing Lewis Structures......Page 320
9.7 Formal Charge and Lewis Structure......Page 323
9.8 The Concept of Resonance......Page 326
9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule......Page 328
9.10 Bond Enthalpy......Page 332
KEY WORDS......Page 336
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 337
CHAPTER 10 Chemical Bonding II: Molecular Geometry and Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals......Page 343
10.1 Molecular Geometry......Page 344
10.2 Dipole Moments......Page 354
10.3 Valence Bond Theory......Page 357
10.4 Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals......Page 359
10.5 Hybridization in Molecules Containing Double and Triple Bonds......Page 368
10.6 Molecular Orbital Theory......Page 371
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 380
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 381
CHAPTER 11 Introduction to Organic Chemistry......Page 386
11.2 Aliphatic Hydrocarbons......Page 387
11.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons......Page 402
11.4 Chemistry of the Functional Groups......Page 405
11.5 Chirality—The Handedness of Molecules......Page 412
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 416
CHAPTER 12 Intermolecular Forces and Liquids and Solids......Page 422
12.1 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Liquids and Solids......Page 423
12.2 Intermolecular Forces......Page 424
12.3 Properties of Liquids......Page 430
12.4 Crystal Structure......Page 433
12.5 Bonding in Solids......Page 439
12.6 Phase Changes......Page 442
12.7 Phase Diagrams......Page 450
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 451
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 452
CHAPTER 13 Physical Properties of Solutions......Page 459
13.2 A Molecular View of the Solution Process......Page 460
13.3 Concentration Units......Page 463
13.4 Effect of Temperature on Solubility......Page 466
13.5 Effect of Pressure on the Solubility of Gases......Page 468
13.6 Colligative Properties......Page 470
KEY EQUATIONS......Page 481
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 482
CHAPTER 14 Chemical Kinetics......Page 489
14.1 The Rate of a Reaction......Page 490
14.2 The Rate Laws......Page 494
14.3 Relation Between Reactant Concentrations and Time......Page 498
14.4 Activation Energy and Temperature Dependence of Rate Constants......Page 506
14.5 Reaction Mechanisms......Page 512
14.6 Catalysis......Page 516
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 522
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 523
CHAPTER 15 Chemical Equilibrium......Page 533
15.1 The Concept of Equilibrium......Page 534
15.2 Ways of Expressing Equilibrium Constants......Page 537
15.3 What Does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us?......Page 544
15.4 Factors That Affect Chemical Equilibrium......Page 549
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 557
CHAPTER 16 Acids and Bases......Page 567
16.1 Brønsted Acids and Bases......Page 568
16.2 The Acid-Base Properties of Water......Page 569
16.3 pH—A Measure of Acidity......Page 571
16.4 Strength of Acids and Bases......Page 574
16.5 Weak Acids and Acid Ionization Constants......Page 578
16.6 Weak Bases and Base Ionization Constants......Page 589
16.7 The Relationship Between Conjugate Acid-Base Ionization Constants......Page 592
16.8 Molecular Structure and the Strength of Acids......Page 593
16.9 Acid-Base Properties of Salts......Page 596
16.10 Acidic, Basic, and Amphoteric Oxides......Page 602
16.11 Lewis Acids and Bases......Page 604
KEY WORDS......Page 606
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 607
CHAPTER 17 Acid-Base Equilibria and Solubility Equilibria......Page 613
17.2 Buffer Solutions......Page 614
17.3 A Closer Look at Acid-Base Titrations......Page 620
17.4 Acid-Base Indicators......Page 626
17.5 Solubility Equilibria......Page 629
17.6 The Common Ion Effect and Solubility......Page 636
17.7 Complex Ion Equilibria and Solubility......Page 637
17.8 Application of the Solubility Product Principle to Qualitative Analysis......Page 640
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 643
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 644
CHAPTER 18 Thermodynamics......Page 651
18.2 Spontaneous Processes......Page 652
18.3 Entropy......Page 653
18.4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 658
18.5 Gibbs Free Energy......Page 664
18.6 Free Energy and Chemical Equilibrium......Page 670
18.7 Thermodynamics in Living Systems......Page 674
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 676
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 677
CHAPTER 19 Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry......Page 684
19.1 Redox Reactions......Page 685
19.2 Galvanic Cells......Page 688
19.3 Standard Reduction Potentials......Page 690
19.4 Thermodynamics of Redox Reactions......Page 696
19.5 The Effect of Concentration on Cell Emf......Page 699
19.6 Batteries......Page 703
19.7 Corrosion......Page 708
19.8 Electrolysis......Page 710
19.9 Electrometallurgy......Page 716
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 717
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 718
CHAPTER 20 The Chemistry of Coordination Compounds......Page 726
20.1 Properties of the Transition Metals......Page 727
20.2 Coordination Compounds......Page 730
20.3 Geometry of Coordination Compounds......Page 736
20.4 Bonding in Coordination Compounds: Crystal Field Theory......Page 738
20.6 Coordination Compounds in Living Systems......Page 744
KEY WORDS......Page 746
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 747
CHAPTER 21 Nuclear Chemistry......Page 751
21.1 The Nature of Nuclear Reactions......Page 752
21.2 Nuclear Stability......Page 754
21.3 Natural Radioactivity......Page 759
21.4 Nuclear Transmutation......Page 763
21.5 Nuclear Fission......Page 766
21.6 Nuclear Fusion......Page 771
21.7 Uses of Isotopes......Page 773
21.8 Biological Effects of Radiation......Page 776
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 777
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 778
CHAPTER 22 Organic Polymers—Synthetic and Natural......Page 784
22.2 Synthetic Organic Polymers......Page 785
22.3 Proteins......Page 790
22.4 Nucleic Acids......Page 797
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND CONCEPTS......Page 799
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 800
Appendix 1 Units for the Gas Constant......Page 804
Appendix 2 Selected Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25°C......Page 805
Appendix 3 Mathematical Operations......Page 809
Appendix 4 The Elements and the Derivation of Their Names and Symbols......Page 812
Glossary......Page 818
Answers to Even-Numbered Problems......Page 826
Credits......Page 836
Index......Page 838