Galaxy Formation and Evolution

Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 19
1 Introduction......Page 23
1.1 The Diversity of the Galaxy Population......Page 24
1.2 Basic Elements of Galaxy Formation......Page 27
1.2.2 Initial Conditions......Page 28
1.2.3 Gravitational Instability and Structure Formation......Page 29
1.2.5 Star Formation......Page 30
1.2.6 Feedback Processes......Page 31
1.2.7 Mergers......Page 32
1.2.9 Chemical Evolution......Page 34
1.2.11 The Intergalactic Medium......Page 35
1.3 Time Scales......Page 36
1.4.1 Galaxies as Extragalactic Objects......Page 37
1.4.2 Cosmology......Page 38
1.4.3 Structure Formation......Page 40
1.4.4 The Emergence of the Cold Dark Matter Paradigm......Page 42
1.4.5 Galaxy Formation......Page 44
2.1 Astronomical Observations......Page 47
2.1.1 Fluxes and Magnitudes......Page 48
2.1.2 Spectroscopy......Page 51
2.1.3 Distance Measurements......Page 54
2.2 Stars......Page 56
2.3 Galaxies......Page 59
2.3.1 The Classification of Galaxies......Page 60
2.3.2 Elliptical Galaxies......Page 63
2.3.3 Disk Galaxies......Page 71
2.3.4 The Milky Way......Page 77
2.3.5 Dwarf Galaxies......Page 79
2.3.6 Nuclear Star Clusters......Page 81
2.3.8 Active Galactic Nuclei......Page 82
2.4 Statistical Properties of the Galaxy Population......Page 83
2.4.1 Luminosity Function......Page 84
2.4.2 Size Distribution......Page 85
2.4.3 Color Distribution......Page 86
2.4.5 Environment Dependence......Page 87
2.5.1 Clusters of Galaxies......Page 89
2.5.2 Groups of Galaxies......Page 93
2.6 Galaxies at High Redshifts......Page 94
2.6.1 Galaxy Counts......Page 95
2.6.3 Galaxy Redshift Surveys at z~1......Page 97
2.6.4 Lyman-Break Galaxies......Page 99
2.6.6 Submillimeter Sources......Page 100
2.6.7 Extremely Red Objects and Distant Red Galaxies......Page 101
2.6.8 The Cosmic Star-Formation History......Page 102
2.7 Large-Scale Structure......Page 103
2.7.1 Two-Point Correlation Functions......Page 104
2.7.2 Probing the Matter Field via Weak Lensing......Page 106
2.8.1 The Gunn–Peterson Test......Page 107
2.8.2 Quasar Absorption Line Systems......Page 108
2.9 The Cosmic Microwave Background......Page 111
2.10 The Homogeneous and Isotropic Universe......Page 114
2.10.1 The Determination of Cosmological Parameters......Page 116
2.10.2 The Mass and Energy Content of the Universe......Page 117
3 Cosmological Background......Page 122
3.1.1 The Cosmological Principle and its Consequences......Page 124
3.1.2 Robertson–Walker Metric......Page 126
3.1.3 Redshift......Page 128
3.1.4 Peculiar Velocities......Page 129
3.1.5 Thermodynamics and the Equation of State......Page 130
3.1.6 Angular-Diameter and Luminosity Distances......Page 132
3.2 Relativistic Cosmology......Page 134
3.2.1 Friedmann Equation......Page 135
3.2.2 The Densities at the Present Time......Page 136
3.2.3 Explicit Solutions of the Friedmann Equation......Page 137
3.2.5 The Age of the Universe......Page 141
3.2.6 Cosmological Distances and Volumes......Page 143
3.3 The Production and Survival of Particles......Page 146
3.3.1 The Chronology of the Hot Big Bang......Page 147
3.3.2 Particles in Thermal Equilibrium......Page 149
3.3.3 Entropy......Page 151
3.3.4 Distribution Functions of Decoupled Particle Species......Page 154
3.3.5 The Freeze-Out of Stable Particles......Page 155
3.3.6 Decaying Particles......Page 159
3.4.1 Initial Conditions......Page 161
3.4.2 Nuclear Reactions......Page 162
3.4.3 Model Predictions......Page 164
3.4.4 Observational Results......Page 166
3.5.1 Recombination......Page 168
3.5.2 Decoupling and the Origin of the CMB......Page 170
3.5.3 Compton Scattering......Page 172
3.5.4 Energy Thermalization......Page 173
3.6.1 The Problems of the Standard Model......Page 174
3.6.2 The Concept of Inflation......Page 176
3.6.3 Realization of Inflation......Page 178
3.6.4 Models of Inflation......Page 180
4.1.1 Ideal Fluid......Page 184
4.1.3 Gravitational Instability......Page 188
4.1.4 Collisionless Gas......Page 190
4.1.5 Free-Streaming Damping......Page 193
4.1.6 Specific Solutions......Page 194
4.1.7 Higher-Order Perturbation Theory......Page 198
4.1.8 The Zel'dovich Approximation......Page 199
4.2 Relativistic Theory of Small Perturbations......Page 200
4.2.1 Gauge Freedom......Page 201
4.2.2 Classification of Perturbations......Page 203
4.2.3 Specific Examples of Gauge Choices......Page 205
4.2.4 Basic Equations......Page 207
4.2.5 Coupling between Baryons and Radiation......Page 211
4.2.6 Perturbation Evolution......Page 213
4.3 Linear Transfer Functions......Page 218
4.3.1 Adiabatic Baryon Models......Page 220
4.3.2 Adiabatic Cold Dark Matter Models......Page 222
4.3.3 Adiabatic Hot Dark Matter Models......Page 223
4.4.1 General Discussion......Page 224
4.4.2 Gaussian Random Fields......Page 226
4.4.3 Simple Non-Gaussian Models......Page 227
4.4.4 Linear Perturbation Spectrum......Page 228
4.5.1 Perturbations from Inflation......Page 231
4.5.2 Perturbations from Topological Defects......Page 235
5.1.1 Spherical Collapse in Λ = 0 Universe......Page 237
5.1.2 Spherical Collapse in a Flat Universe with lambda > 0......Page 240
5.1.3 Spherical Collapse with Shell Crossing......Page 241
5.2.1 Models with Radial Orbits......Page 242
5.2.2 Models Including Non-Radial Orbits......Page 246
5.3 Collapse of Homogeneous Ellipsoids......Page 248
5.4.1 Time Scales for Collisions......Page 252
5.4.2 Basic Dynamics......Page 254
5.4.3 The Jeans Equations......Page 255
5.4.4 The Virial Theorem......Page 256
5.4.5 Orbit Theory......Page 258
5.4.7 Spherical Equilibrium Models......Page 262
5.4.8 Axisymmetric Equilibrium Models......Page 266
5.4.9 Triaxial Equilibrium Models......Page 269
5.5 Collisionless Relaxation......Page 270
5.5.1 Phase Mixing......Page 271
5.5.2 Chaotic Mixing......Page 272
5.5.3 Violent Relaxation......Page 273
5.5.4 Landau Damping......Page 275
5.5.5 The End State of Relaxation......Page 276
5.6.1 Hierarchical Clustering......Page 279
5.6.2 Results from Numerical Simulations......Page 280
6.1.1 Correlation Functions......Page 284
6.1.2 Particle Sampling and Bias......Page 286
6.1.3 Mass Moments......Page 288
6.2.1 Bulk Motions and Velocity Correlation Functions......Page 292
6.2.2 Mass Density Reconstruction from the Velocity Field......Page 293
6.3.1 Redshift Distortions......Page 295
6.3.2 Real-Space Correlation Functions......Page 298
6.4.1 Dynamics of Statistics......Page 300
6.4.2 Self-Similar Gravitational Clustering......Page 302
6.4.3 Development of Non-Gaussian Features......Page 304
6.5 Galaxy Clustering......Page 305
6.5.1 Correlation Analyses......Page 306
6.5.2 Power Spectrum Analysis......Page 310
6.5.3 Angular Correlation Function and Power Spectrum......Page 312
6.6.1 Basic Equations......Page 314
6.6.2 Lensing by a Point Mass......Page 317
6.6.3 Lensing by an Extended Object......Page 319
6.6.4 Cosmic Shear......Page 322
6.7.1 Observational Quantities......Page 324
6.7.2 Theoretical Expectations of Temperature Anisotropy......Page 326
6.7.3 Thomson Scattering and Polarization of the Microwave Background......Page 333
6.7.4 Interaction between CMB Photons and Matter......Page 336
6.7.5 Constraints on Cosmological Parameters......Page 338
7 Formation and Structure of Dark Matter Halos......Page 341
7.1.1 Peak Number Density......Page 343
7.1.2 Spatial Modulation of the Peak Number Density......Page 345
7.1.3 Correlation Function......Page 346
7.1.4 Shapes of Density Peaks......Page 347
7.2 Halo Mass Function......Page 348
7.2.1 Press–Schechter Formalism......Page 349
7.2.2 Excursion Set Derivation of the Press–Schechter Formula......Page 350
7.2.3 Spherical versus Ellipsoidal Dynamics......Page 353
7.2.4 Tests of the Press–Schechter Formalism......Page 355
7.2.5 Number Density of Galaxy Clusters......Page 356
7.3.2 Halo Merger Trees......Page 358
7.3.3 Main Progenitor Histories......Page 361
7.3.4 Halo Assembly and Formation Times......Page 362
7.3.5 Halo Merger Rates......Page 364
7.3.6 Halo Survival Times......Page 365
7.4.1 Linear Bias and Correlation Function......Page 367
7.4.3 Nonlinear and Stochastic Bias......Page 370
7.5.1 Halo Density Profiles......Page 373
7.5.2 Halo Shapes......Page 376
7.5.3 Halo Substructure......Page 377
7.5.4 Angular Momentum......Page 380
7.6 The Halo Model of Dark Matter Clustering......Page 384
8.1.1 Basic Equations......Page 388
8.1.3 Radiative Cooling......Page 389
8.1.4 Photoionization Heating......Page 391
8.2.1 Gas Density Profile......Page 393
8.2.2 Convective Instability......Page 395
8.2.3 Virial Theorem Applied to a Gaseous Halo......Page 396
8.3.1 Accretion Shocks......Page 398
8.3.2 Self-Similar Collapse of Collisional Gas......Page 401
8.3.3 The Impact of a Collisionless Component......Page 405
8.3.4 More General Models of Spherical Collapse......Page 406
8.4.1 Radiative Cooling Time Scales for Uniform Clouds......Page 407
8.4.2 Evolution of the Cooling Radius......Page 409
8.4.3 Self-Similar Cooling Waves......Page 410
8.4.4 Spherical Collapse with Cooling......Page 412
8.5.1 Thermal Instability......Page 415
8.5.2 Hydrodynamical Instabilities......Page 418
8.5.3 Heat Conduction......Page 419
8.6 Evolution of Gaseous Halos with Energy Sources......Page 420
8.6.1 Blast Waves......Page 421
8.6.2 Winds and Wind-Driven Bubbles......Page 426
8.6.3 Supernova Feedback and Galaxy Formation......Page 428
8.7.1 Three-Dimensional Collapse without Radiative Cooling......Page 430
8.7.2 Three-Dimensional Collapse with Radiative Cooling......Page 431
8.8.1 X-ray Clusters and Groups......Page 432
8.8.2 Gaseous Halos around Elliptical Galaxies......Page 436
8.8.3 Gaseous Halos around Spiral Galaxies......Page 438
9 Star Formation in Galaxies......Page 439
9.1.1 Observed Properties......Page 440
9.1.2 Dynamical State......Page 441
9.2.1 The Formation of Molecular Hydrogen......Page 443
9.2.2 Cloud Formation......Page 444
9.3.1 Magnetic Fields......Page 447
9.3.2 Supersonic Turbulence......Page 448
9.3.3 Self-Regulation......Page 450
9.4.1 The Formation of Low-Mass Stars......Page 451
9.4.2 The Formation of Massive Stars......Page 454
9.5 Empirical Star-Formation Laws......Page 455
9.5.1 The Kennicutt–Schmidt Law......Page 456
9.5.2 Local Star-Formation Laws......Page 458
9.5.3 Star-Formation Thresholds......Page 460
9.6 The Initial Mass Function......Page 462
9.6.1 Observational Constraints......Page 463
9.6.2 Theoretical Models......Page 465
9.7 The Formation of Population III Stars......Page 468
10.1 The Basic Concepts of Stellar Evolution......Page 471
10.1.1 Basic Equations of Stellar Structure......Page 472
10.1.3 Equation of State, Opacity, and Energy Production......Page 475
10.1.4 Scaling Relations......Page 482
10.1.5 Main-Sequence Lifetimes......Page 484
10.2.1 Pre-Main-Sequence Evolution......Page 485
10.2.2 Post-Main-Sequence Evolution......Page 486
10.2.3 Supernova Progenitors and Rates......Page 490
10.3.1 Stellar Spectra......Page 492
10.3.2 Spectral Synthesis......Page 493
10.3.3 Passive Evolution......Page 494
10.3.4 Spectral Features......Page 496
10.3.6 K and E Corrections......Page 497
10.3.7 Emission and Absorption by the Interstellar Medium......Page 498
10.3.8 Star-Formation Diagnostics......Page 504
10.3.9 Estimating Stellar Masses and Star-Formation Histories of Galaxies......Page 506
10.4.1 Stellar Chemical Production......Page 508
10.4.2 The Closed-Box Model......Page 510
10.4.3 Models with Inflow and Outflow......Page 512
10.4.4 Abundance Ratios......Page 513
10.5.1 Mass-Loaded Kinetic Energy from Stars......Page 514
10.5.2 Gas Dynamics Including Stellar Feedback......Page 515
11.1 Mass Components and Angular Momentum......Page 517
11.1.1 Disk Models......Page 518
11.1.2 Rotation Curves......Page 520
11.1.3 Adiabatic Contraction......Page 523
11.1.4 Disk Angular Momentum......Page 524
11.1.5 Orbits in Disk Galaxies......Page 525
11.2.2 Non-Self-Gravitating Disks in Isothermal Spheres......Page 527
11.2.3 Self-Gravitating Disks in Halos with Realistic Profiles......Page 529
11.2.5 Disk Assembly......Page 531
11.2.6 Numerical Simulations of Disk Formation......Page 533
11.3 The Origin of Disk Galaxy Scaling Relations......Page 534
11.4.1 Disks from Relic Angular Momentum Distribution......Page 537
11.4.2 Viscous Disks......Page 539
11.4.3 The Vertical Structure of Disk Galaxies......Page 540
11.5.1 Basic Equations......Page 543
11.5.2 Local Instability......Page 545
11.5.3 Global Instability......Page 547
11.5.4 Secular Evolution......Page 550
11.6 The Formation of Spiral Arms......Page 553
11.7 Stellar Population Properties......Page 556
11.7.1 Global Trends......Page 557
11.7.2 Color Gradients......Page 559
11.8.1 The Solar Neighborhood......Page 560
11.8.2 Global Relations......Page 562
12 Galaxy Interactions and Transformations......Page 566
12.1 High-Speed Encounters......Page 567
12.2.1 Tidal Radius......Page 570
12.2.2 Tidal Streams and Tails......Page 571
12.3 Dynamical Friction......Page 575
12.3.1 Orbital Decay......Page 578
12.3.2 The Validity of Chandrasekhar's Formula......Page 581
12.4.1 Criterion for Mergers......Page 583
12.4.2 Merger Demographics......Page 585
12.4.3 The Connection between Mergers, Starbursts and AGN......Page 586
12.4.4 Minor Mergers and Disk Heating......Page 587
12.5 Transformation of Galaxies in Clusters......Page 590
12.5.1 Galaxy Harassment......Page 591
12.5.2 Galactic Cannibalism......Page 592
12.5.3 Ram-Pressure Stripping......Page 593
12.5.4 Strangulation......Page 594
13.1 Structure and Dynamics......Page 596
13.1.1 Observables......Page 597
13.1.2 Photometric Properties......Page 598
13.1.3 Kinematic Properties......Page 599
13.1.4 Dynamical Modeling......Page 601
13.1.5 Evidence for Dark Halos......Page 603
13.1.6 Evidence for Supermassive Black Holes......Page 604
13.1.7 Shapes......Page 606
13.2 The Formation of Elliptical Galaxies......Page 609
13.2.1 The Monolithic Collapse Scenario......Page 610
13.2.2 The Merger Scenario......Page 612
13.2.3 Hierarchical Merging and the Elliptical Population......Page 615
13.3.1 Evolution of the Number Density of Ellipticals......Page 616
13.3.2 The Sizes of Elliptical Galaxies......Page 617
13.3.3 Phase-Space Density Constraints......Page 620
13.3.4 The Specific Frequency of Globular Clusters......Page 621
13.3.5 Merging Signatures......Page 622
13.3.6 Merger Rates......Page 623
13.4 The Fundamental Plane of Elliptical Galaxies......Page 624
13.4.2 Projections and Rotations of the Fundamental Plane......Page 626
13.5.1 Archaeological Records......Page 628
13.5.2 Evolutionary Probes......Page 631
13.5.4 Implications for the Formation of Elliptical Galaxies......Page 632
13.6 Bulges, Dwarf Ellipticals and Dwarf Spheroidals......Page 635
13.6.1 The Formation of Galactic Bulges......Page 636
13.6.2 The Formation of Dwarf Ellipticals......Page 638
14 Active Galaxies......Page 640
14.1 The Population of Active Galactic Nuclei......Page 641
14.2.1 The Central Engine......Page 645
14.2.2 Accretion Disks......Page 646
14.2.3 Continuum Emission......Page 648
14.2.4 Emission Lines......Page 653
14.2.5 Jets, Superluminal Motion and Beaming......Page 655
14.2.6 Emission-Line Regions and Obscuring Torus......Page 659
14.2.7 The Idea of Unification......Page 660
14.2.8 Observational Tests for Supermassive Black Holes......Page 661
14.3.1 The Growth of Supermassive Black Holes and the Fueling of AGN......Page 662
14.3.2 AGN Demographics......Page 666
14.3.3 Outstanding Questions......Page 669
14.4 AGN and Galaxy Formation......Page 670
14.4.1 Radiative Feedback......Page 671
14.4.2 Mechanical Feedback......Page 672
15.1 Preamble......Page 674
15.2.1 Galaxy Luminosity Functions......Page 676
15.2.2 Galaxy Counts......Page 680
15.2.3 Extragalactic Background Light......Page 682
15.3.1 Simple Considerations......Page 685
15.3.2 The Luminosity Function of Central Galaxies......Page 687
15.3.3 The Luminosity Function of Satellite Galaxies......Page 688
15.3.4 Satellite Fractions......Page 690
15.3.5 Discussion......Page 691
15.4.1 The Color Distribution of Galaxies......Page 692
15.4.2 Origin of the Cosmic Star-Formation History......Page 695
15.5 Environmental Dependence......Page 696
15.5.1 Effects within Dark Matter Halos......Page 697
15.5.2 Effects on Large Scales......Page 699
15.6 Spatial Clustering and Galaxy Bias......Page 701
15.6.1 Application to High-Redshift Galaxies......Page 705
15.7.1 Semi-Analytical Models......Page 706
15.7.2 Hydrodynamical Simulations......Page 708
16 The Intergalactic Medium......Page 711
16.1.2 The Mean Optical Depth of the IGM......Page 712
16.1.3 The Gunn–Peterson Test......Page 714
16.1.4 Constraints from the Cosmic Microwave Background......Page 716
16.2.1 Photoionization versus Collisional Ionization......Page 717
16.2.2 Emissivity from Quasars and Young Galaxies......Page 719
16.2.3 Attenuation by Intervening Absorbers......Page 721
16.2.4 Observational Constraints on the UV Background......Page 723
16.3.1 Thermal Evolution......Page 724
16.3.2 Ionization Evolution......Page 726
16.3.3 The Epoch of Re-ionization......Page 727
16.3.4 Probing Re-ionization with 21-cm Emission and Absorption......Page 729
16.4.1 Distribution Function......Page 731
16.4.2 Thermal Broadening......Page 732
16.4.3 Natural Broadening and Voigt Profiles......Page 733
16.4.4 Equivalent Width and Column Density......Page 734
16.5 The Lyman  Forest......Page 736
16.5.1 Redshift Evolution......Page 737
16.5.2 Column Density Distribution......Page 738
16.5.3 Doppler Parameter......Page 739
16.5.4 Sizes of Absorbers......Page 740
16.5.5 Metallicity......Page 741
16.5.6 Clustering......Page 742
16.5.7 Lyman α Forests at Low Redshift......Page 743
16.5.8 The Helium Lyman α Forest......Page 744
16.6.1 Early Models......Page 745
16.6.2 Lyman α Forest in Hierarchical Models......Page 746
16.6.3 Lyman α Forest in Hydrodynamical Simulations......Page 753
16.7 Lyman-Limit Systems......Page 754
16.8 Damped Lyman α Systems......Page 755
16.8.2 Redshift Evolution......Page 756
16.8.3 Metallicities......Page 758
16.9 Metal Absorption Line Systems......Page 760
16.9.1 MgII Systems......Page 761
16.9.2 CIV and OVI Systems......Page 762
A1.1 Space-time Geometry......Page 763
A1.2 The Equivalence Principle......Page 765
A1.3 Geodesic Equations......Page 766
A1.4 Energy–Momentum Tensor......Page 768
A1.6 Einstein's Field Equation......Page 769
B1.1 Ideal Gas......Page 770
B1.2 Basic Equations......Page 771
B1.3 Radiative Processes......Page 773
B1.3.1 Einstein Coefficients and Milne Relation......Page 774
B1.3.2 Photoionization and Photo-excitation......Page 777
B1.3.3 Recombination......Page 778
B1.3.4 Collisional Ionization and Collisional Excitation......Page 779
B1.3.5 Bremsstrahlung......Page 780
B1.3.6 Compton Scattering......Page 781
B1.4 Radiative Cooling......Page 782
C1.1 N-Body Simulations......Page 786
C1.1.1 Force Calculations......Page 788
C1.1.2 Issues Related to Numerical Accuracy......Page 789
C1.1.4 Initial Conditions......Page 791
C1.2.1 Smoothed-Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH)......Page 792
C1.2.2 Grid-Based Algorithms......Page 794
Appendix D: Frequently Used Abbreviations......Page 797
Appendix E: Useful Numbers......Page 798
References......Page 799
Index......Page 828