Fundamentals of Thermal-Fluid Sciences

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FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL-FLUID SCIENCES
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
BRIEF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
	1–1: Introduction to Thermal Fluid Sciences
		Application Areas of Thermal Fluid Sciences
	1–2: Thermodynamics
	1–3: Heat Transfer
	1–4: Fluid Mechanics
	1–5: Importance of Dimensions and Units
		Some SI and English Units
		Dimensional Homogeneity
		Unity Conversion Ratios
	1–6: Problem-Solving Technique
		Step 1: Problem Statement
		Step 2: Schematic
		Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations
		Step 4: Physical Laws
		Step 5: Properties
		Step 6: Calculations
		Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion
		Engineering Software Packages
		Equation Solvers
		A Remark on Significant Digits
	Summary
	References and Suggested Readings
	problems
PART 1: THERMODYNAMICS
	CHAPTER TWO: BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS
		2–1: Systems and Control Volumes
		2–2: Properties of a System
			Continuum
		2–3: Density and Specific Gravity
		2–4: State and Equilibrium
			The State Postulate
		2–5: Processes and Cycles
			The Steady-Flow Process
		2–6: Temperature and the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
			Temperature Scales
		2–7: Pressure
			Variation of Pressure with Depth
		2–8: Pressure Measurement Devices
			The Barometer
			The Manometer
			Other Pressure Measurement Devices
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
	CHAPTER THREE: ENERGY, ENERGY TRANSFER, AND GENERAL ENERGY ANALYSIS
		3–1: Introduction
		3–2: Forms of Energy
			Some Physical Insight into Internal Energy
			More on Nuclear Energy
			Mechanical Energy
		3–3: Energy Transfer by Heat
			Historical Background on Heat
		3–4: Energy Transfer By Work
			Electrical Work
		3–5: Mechanical Forms Of Work
			Shaft Work
			Spring Work
			Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars
			Work Associated with the Stretching of a Liquid Film
			Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
			Nonmechanical Forms of Work
		3–6: The First Law Of Thermodynamics
			Energy Balance
			Energy Change of a System, ΔEsystem
			Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout
		3–7: Energy Conversion Efficiencies
			Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
	CHAPTER FOUR: PROPERTIES OF PURE SUBSTANCES
		4–1: Pure Substance
		4–2: Phases of a Pure Substance
		4–3: Phase-Change Processes of Pure Substances
			Compressed Liquid and Saturated Liquid
			Saturated Vapor and Superheated Vapor
			Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure
			Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence
		4–4: Property Diagrams for Phase-Change Processes
			1: The T-v Diagram
			2: The P-v Diagram
			Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase
			3: The P-T Diagram
			The P-v-T Surface
		4–5: Property Tables
			Enthalpy—A Combination Property
			1a: Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States
			1: Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture
			2 Superheated Vapor
			3 Compressed Liquid
			Reference State and Reference Values
		4–6: The Ideal-Gas Equation of State
			Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?
		4–7: Compressibility Factor—A Measure of Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
	CHAPTER FIVE: ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CLOSED SYSTEMS
		5–1: Moving Boundary Work
			Polytropic Process
		5–2: Energy Balance for Closed Systems
		5–3: Specific Heats
		5–4: Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases
			Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
		5–5: Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids
			Internal Energy Changes
			Enthalpy Changes
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
	CHAPTER SIX: MASS AND ENERGY ANALYSIS OF CONTROL VOLUMES
		6–1: Conservation of Mass
			Mass and Volume Flow Rates
			Conservation of Mass Principle
			Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
			Special Case: Incompressible Flow
		6–2: Flow Work and the Energy of a Flowing Fluid
			Total Energy of a Flowing Fluid
			Energy Transport by Mass
		6–3: Energy Analysis of Steady-Flow Systems
		6–4: Some Steady-Flow Engineering Devices
			1 Nozzles and Diffusers
			2 Turbines and Compressors
			3 Throttling Valves
			4a Mixing Chambers
			4b Heat Exchangers
			5 Pipe and Duct Flow
		6–5: Energy Analysis of Unsteady-Flow Processes
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
	CHAPTER SEVEN: THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
		7–1: Introduction to the Second Law
		7–2: Thermal Energy Reservoirs
		7–3: Heat Engines
			Thermal Efficiency
			Can We Save Qout?
			The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Kelvin–Planck Statement
		7–4: Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
			Coefficient of Performance
			Heat Pumps
			Performance of Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
			The Second Law of Thermodynamics: Clausius Statement
			Equivalence of the Two Statements
		7–5: Reversible and Irreversible Processes
			Irreversibilities
			Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
		7–6: The Carnot Cycle
			The Reversed Carnot Cycle
		7–7: The Carnot Principles
		7–8: The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale
		7–9: The Carnot Heat Engine
			The Quality of Energy
		7–10: The Carnot Refrigerator and Heat Pump
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
	CHAPTER EIGHT: ENTROPY
		8–1: Entropy
			A Special Case: Internally Reversible Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes
		8–2: The Increase of Entropy Principle
			Some Remarks About Entropy
		8–3: Entropy Change of Pure Substances
		8–4: Isentropic Processes
		8–5: Property Diagrams Involving Entropy
		8–6: What is Entropy?
			Entropy and Entropy Generation in Daily Life
		8–7: The T ds Relations
		8–8: Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids
		8–9: The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases
			Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
			Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
			Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
			Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
			Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
			Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume
		8–10: Reversible Steady-Flow Work
			Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume the Least Work When the Process Is Reversible
		8–11: Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices
			Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines
			Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps
			Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
		8–12: Entropy Balance
			Entropy Change of a System, ΔSsystem
			Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
			1 Heat Transfer
			2 Mass Flow
			Entropy Generation, Sgen
			Closed Systems
			Control Volumes
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
	CHAPTER NINE: POWER AND REFRIGERATION CYCLES
		9–1: Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles
		9–2: The Carnot Cycle and its Value in Engineering
		9–3: Air-Standard Assumptions
		9–4: An Overview of Reciprocating Engines
		9–5: Otto Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Spark-Ignition Engines
		9–6: Diesel Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Compression-Ignition Engines
		9–7: Brayton Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Gas-Turbine Engines
			Development of Gas Turbines
			Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine Cycles from Idealized Ones
		9–8: The Brayton Cycle with Regeneration
		9–9: The Carnot Vapor Cycle
		9–10: Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles
			Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
		9–11: Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles From Idealized Ones
		9–12: How Can We Increase The Efficiency of The Rankine Cycle?
			Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow,avg)
			Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increases Thigh,avg)
			Increasing the Boiler Pressure (Increases Thigh,avg)
		9–13: The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle
		9–14: Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
		9–15: The Reversed Carnot Cycle
		9–16: The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
		9–17: Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
		9–18: Heat Pump Systems
		Summary
		References and Suggested Readings
		Problems
PART 2: FLUID MECHANICS
	CHAPTER TEN: INTRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
		10–1: The No-Slip Condition
		10–2: Classification of Fluid Flows
			Viscous Versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
			Internal Versus External Flow
			Compressible Versus Incompressible Flow
			Laminar Versus Turbulent Flow
			Natural (or Unforced) Versus Forced Flow
			Steady Versus Unsteady Flow
			One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
			Uniform Versus Nonuniform Flow
		10–3: Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
		10–4: Viscosity
		10–5: Surface Tension and Capillary Effect
			Capillary Effect
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER ELEVEN: FLUID STATICS
		11–1: Introduction to Fluid Statics
		11–2: Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
			Special Case: Submerged Rectangular Plate
		11–3: Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces
		11–4: Buoyancy and Stability
			Stability of Immersed and Floating Bodies
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER TWELVE: BERNOULLI AND ENERGY EQUATIONS
		12–1: The Bernoulli Equation
			Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
			Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
			Force Balance Across Streamlines
			Unsteady, Compressible Flow
			Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
			Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
			Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
			Applications of the Bernoulli Equation
		12–2: Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
			Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No Mechanical Work Devices and Negligible Friction
			Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, α
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER THIRTEEN: MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
		13–1: Newton’s Laws
		13–2: Choosing a Control Volume
		13–3: Forces Acting on a Control Volume
		13–4: The Reynolds Transport Theorem
			An Application: Conservation of Mass
		13–5: The Linear Momentum Equation
			Special Cases
			Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, β
			Steady Flow
			Flow with No External Forces
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER FOURTEEN: INTERNAL FLOW
		14–1: Introduction
		14–2: Laminar and Turbulent Flows
			Reynolds Number
		14–3: The Entrance Region
			Entry Lengths
		14–4: Laminar Flow in Pipes
			Pressure Drop and Head Loss
			Effect of Gravity on Velocity and Flow Rate in Laminar Flow
			Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes
		14–5: Turbulent Flow in Pipes
			Turbulent Velocity Profile
			The Moody Chart and Its Associated Equations
			Types of Fluid Flow Problems
		14–6: Minor Losses
		14–7: Piping Networks and Pump Selection
			Series and Parallel Pipes
			Piping Systems with Pumps and Turbines
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER FIFTEEN: EXTERNAL FLOW: DRAG AND LIFT
		15–1: Introduction
		15–2: Drag and Lift
		15–3: Friction and Pressure Drag
			Reducing Drag by Streamlining
			Flow Separation
		15–4: Drag Coefficients of Common Geometries
			Biological Systems and Drag
			Drag Coefficients of Vehicles
			Superposition
		15–5: Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates
			Friction Coefficient
		15–6: Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres
			Effect of Surface Roughness
		15–7: Lift
			Finite-Span Wings and Induced Drag
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
PART 3: HEAT TRANSFER
	CHAPTER SIXTEEN: MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
		16–1: Introduction
		16–2: Conduction
			Thermal Conductivity
			Thermal Diffusivity
		16–3: Convection
		16–4: Radiation
		16–5: Simultaneous Heat Transfer Mechanisms
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER SEVENTEEN: STEADY HEAT CONDUCTION
		17–1: Steady Heat Conduction in Plane Walls
			Thermal Resistance Concept
			Thermal Resistance Network
			Multilayer Plane Walls
		17–2: Thermal Contact Resistance
		17–3: Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks
		17–4: Heat Conduction in Cylinders and Spheres
			Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres
		17–5: Critical Radius of Insulation
		17–6: Heat Transfer from Finned Surfaces
			Fin Equation
			Fin Efficiency
			Fin Effectiveness
			Proper Length of a Fin
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER EIGHTEEN: TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
		18–1: Lumped System Analysis
			Criteria for Lumped System Analysis
			Some Remarks on Heat Transfer in Lumped Systems
		18–2: Transient Heat Conduction in Large Plane Walls, Long Cylinders, and Spheres with Spatial Effects
			Nondimensionalized One-Dimensional Transient Conduction Problem
			Approximate Analytical Solutions
		18–3: Transient Heat Conduction in Semi-Infinite Solids
			Contact of Two Semi-Infinite Solids
		18–4: Transient Heat Conduction in Multidimensional Systems
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER NINETEEN: FORCED CONVECTION
		19–1: Physical Mechanism of Convection
			Nusselt Number
		19–2: Thermal Boundary Layer
			Prandtl Number
		19–3: Parallel Flow Over Flat Plates
			Flat Plate with Unheated Starting Length
			Uniform Heat Flux
		19–4: Flow Across Cylinders and Spheres
		19–5: General Considerations for Pipe Flow
			Thermal Entrance Region
			Entry Lengths
		19–6: General Thermal Analysis
			Constant Surface Heat Flux (qs = constant)
			Constant Surface Temperature (Ts = constant)
		19–7: Laminar Flow in Tubes
			Constant Surface Heat Flux
			Constant Surface Temperature
			Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes
			Developing Laminar Flow in the Entrance Region
		19–8: Turbulent Flow in Tubes
			Developing Turbulent Flow in the Entrance Region
			Turbulent Flow in Noncircular Tubes
			Flow Through Tube Annulus
			Heat Transfer Enhancement
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER TWENTY: NATURAL CONVECTION
		20–1: Physical Mechanism of Natural Convection
		20–2: Equation Of Motion and the Grashof Number
			The Grashof Number
		20–3: Natural Convection Over Surfaces
			Vertical Plates (Ts = constant)
			Vertical Plates ( qs = constant)
			Vertical Cylinders
			Inclined Plates
			Horizontal Plates
			Horizontal Cylinders and Spheres
		20–4: Natural Convection Inside Enclosures
			Effective Thermal Conductivity
			Horizontal Rectangular Enclosures
			Inclined Rectangular Enclosures
			Vertical Rectangular Enclosures
			Concentric Cylinders
			Concentric Spheres
			Combined Natural Convection and Radiation
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER TWENTY ONE: RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
		21–1: Introduction
		21–2: Thermal Radiation
		21–3: Blackbody Radiation
		21–4: Radiative Properties
			Emissivity
			Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity
			Kirchhoff’s Law
			The Greenhouse Effect
		21–5: The View Factor
		21–6: View Factor Relations
			1 The Reciprocity Relation
			2 The Summation Rule
			3 The Superposition Rule
			4 The Symmetry Rule
			View Factors Between Infinitely Long Surfaces: The Crossed-Strings Method
		21–7: Radiation Heat Transfer: Black Surfaces
		21–8: Radiation Heat Transfer: Diffuse, Gray Surfaces
			Radiosity
			Net Radiation Heat Transfer to or from a Surface
			Net Radiation Heat Transfer Between Any Two Surfaces
			Methods of Solving Radiation Problems
			Radiation Heat Transfer in Two-Surface Enclosures
			Radiation Heat Transfer in Three-Surface Enclosures
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
	CHAPTER TWENTY TWO: HEAT EXCHANGERS
		22–1: Types of Heat Exchangers
		22–2: The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
			Fouling Factor
		22–3: Analysis of Heat Exchangers
		22–4: The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
			Counterflow Heat Exchangers
			Multipass and Crossflow Heat Exchangers: Use of a Correction Factor
		22–5: The Effectiveness–Ntu Method
		Summary
		References and Suggested Reading
		Problems
APPENDIX 1: PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (SI UNITS)
	TABLE A–1: Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties
	TABLE A–2: Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases
	TABLE A–3: Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods
	TABLE A–4: Saturated water—Temperature table
	TABLE A–5: Saturated water—Pressure table
	TABLE A–6 : Superheated water
	TABLE A–7: Compressed liquid water
	TABLE A–8: Saturated ice–water vapor
	FIGURE A–9: T-s diagram for water
	FIGURE A–10: Mollier diagram for water
	TABLE A–11: Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table
	TABLE A–12: Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table
	TABLE A–13: Superheated refrigerant-134a
	FIGURE A–14: P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a
	TABLE A–15: Properties of saturated water
	TABLE A–16: Properties of saturated refrigerant-134a
	TABLE A–17: Properties of saturated ammonia
	TABLE A–18: Properties of saturated propane
	TABLE A–19: Properties of liquids
	TABLE A–20: Properties of liquid metals
	TABLE A–21: Ideal-gas properties of air
	TABLE A–22: Properties of air at 1 atm pressure
	TABLE A–23: Properties of gases at 1 atm pressure
	TABLE A–24: Properties of solid metals
	TABLE A–25: Properties of solid nonmetals
	TABLE A–26: Emissivities of surfaces
	FIGURE A–27: The Moody chart
	FIGURE A–28: Nelson–Obert generalized compressibility chart
APPENDIX 2: PROPERTY TABLES AND CHARTS (ENGLISH UNITS)
	Table A–1E: Molar mass, gas constant, and critical-point properties
	Table A–2E: Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases
	Table A–3E: Properties of common liquids, solids, and foods
	Table A–4E: Saturated water—Temperature table
	Table A–5E: Saturated water—Pressure table
	Table A–6E: Superheated water
	Table A–7E: Compressed liquid water
	Table A–8E: Saturated ice–water vapor
	Figure A–9E: T-s diagram for water
	Figure A–10E: Mollier diagram for water
	Table A–11E: Saturated refrigerant-134a—Temperature table
	Table A–12E: Saturated refrigerant-134a—Pressure table
	Table A–13E: Superheated refrigerant-134a
	Figure A–14E: P-h diagram for refrigerant-134a
	Table A–15E: Properties of saturated water
	Table A–16E: Properties of saturated refrigerant-134a
	Table A–17E: Properties of saturated ammonia
	Table A–18E: Properties of saturated propane
	Table A–19E: Properties of liquids
	Table A–20E: Properties of liquid metals
	Table A–21E: Ideal-gas properties of air
	Table A–22E: Properties of air at 1 atm pressure
	Table A–23E: Properties of gases at 1 atm pressure
	Table A–24E: Properties of solid metals
	Table A–25E: Properties of solid nonmetals
INDEX
NOMENCLATURE
Conversion Factors and Some Physical Constants