Fundamentals of Physics

Cover Page\r......Page 1
Title Page\r......Page 7
Copyright Page\r......Page 8
BRIEF CONTENTS\r......Page 9
CONTENTS\r......Page 11
PREFACE\r......Page 19
1-2 Measuring Things\r......Page 27
1-3 The International System of Units\r......Page 28
1-5 Length\r......Page 29
1-6 Time\r......Page 31
1-7 Mass\r......Page 32
PROBLEMS\r......Page 34
2-3 Position and Displacement\r......Page 39
2-4 Average Velocity and Average Speed\r......Page 40
2-5 Instantaneous Velocity and Speed\r......Page 43
2-6 Acceleration\r......Page 44
2-7 Constant Acceleration: A Special Case\r......Page 48
2-8 Another Look at Constant Acceleration\r......Page 50
2-9 Free-Fall Acceleration\r......Page 51
2-10 Graphical Integration in Motion Analysis\r......Page 53
QUESTIONS\r......Page 55
PROBLEMS\r......Page 56
3-2 Vectors and Scalars\r......Page 64
3-3 Adding Vectors Geometrically\r......Page 65
3-4 Components of Vectors\r......Page 67
3-6 Adding Vectors by Components\r......Page 70
3-8 Multiplying Vectors\r......Page 73
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 78
QUESTIONS\r......Page 79
PROBLEMS\r......Page 80
4-2 Position and Displacement\r......Page 84
4-3 Average Velocity and Instantaneous Velocity\r......Page 86
4-4 Average Acceleration and Instantaneous Acceleration\r......Page 88
4-5 Projectile Motion\r......Page 90
4-6 Projectile Motion Analyzed\r......Page 92
4-7 Uniform Circular Motion\r......Page 96
4-8 Relative Motion in One Dimension\r......Page 99
4-9 Relative Motion in Two Dimensions\r......Page 100
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 102
QUESTIONS\r......Page 103
PROBLEMS\r......Page 104
5-3 Newton’s First Law\r......Page 113
5-4 Force\r......Page 114
5-5 Mass\r......Page 116
5-6 Newton’s Second Law\r......Page 117
5-7 Some Particular Forces\r......Page 121
5-8 Newton’s Third Law\r......Page 124
5-9 Applying Newton’s Laws\r......Page 126
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 131
QUESTIONS\r......Page 132
PROBLEMS\r......Page 134
6-2 Friction\r......Page 142
6-3 Properties of Friction\r......Page 145
6-4 The Drag Force and Terminal Speed\r......Page 147
6-5 Uniform Circular Motion\r......Page 150
QUESTIONS\r......Page 155
PROBLEMS\r......Page 156
7-2 What Is Energy?......Page 166
7-3 Kinetic Energy......Page 167
7-5 Work and Kinetic Energy......Page 168
7-6 Work Done by the Gravitational Force......Page 172
7-7 Work Done by a Spring Force......Page 175
7-8 Work Done by a General Variable Force......Page 177
7-9 Power......Page 181
QUESTIONS......Page 183
PROBLEMS......Page 185
8-1 What Is Physics?......Page 192
8-2 Work and Potential Energy......Page 193
8-3 Path Independence of Conservative Forces......Page 194
8-4 Determining Potential Energy Values......Page 196
8-5 Conservation of Mechanical Energy......Page 199
8-6 Reading a Potential Energy Curve......Page 202
8-7 Work Done on a System by an External Force......Page 206
8-8 Conservation of Energy......Page 209
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 212
QUESTIONS......Page 213
PROBLEMS......Page 215
9-2 The Center of Mass......Page 227
9-3 Newton’s Second Law for a System of Particles......Page 232
9-4 Linear Momentum......Page 236
9-6 Collision and Impulse......Page 237
9-7 Conservation of Linear Momentum......Page 241
9-8 Momentum and Kinetic Energy in Collisions......Page 243
9-9 Inelastic Collisions in One Dimension......Page 244
9-10 Elastic Collisions in One Dimension......Page 247
9-12 Systems with Varying Mass: A Rocket......Page 250
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 253
QUESTIONS......Page 254
PROBLEMS......Page 256
10-2 The Rotational Variables......Page 267
10-3 Are Angular Quantities Vectors?......Page 272
10-4 Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration......Page 274
10-5 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables......Page 276
10-6 Kinetic Energy of Rotation......Page 279
10-7 Calculating the Rotational Inertia......Page 280
10-8 Torque......Page 284
10-9 Newton’s Second Law for Rotation......Page 286
10-10 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy......Page 288
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 290
QUESTIONS......Page 292
PROBLEMS......Page 293
11-2 Rolling as Translation and Rotation Combined......Page 301
11-3 The Kinetic Energy of Rolling......Page 303
11-4 The Forces of Rolling......Page 304
11-5 The Yo-Yo......Page 306
11-6 Torque Revisited......Page 307
11-7 Angular Momentum......Page 310
11-8 Newton’s Second Law in Angular Form......Page 311
11-10 The Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body Rotating About a Fixed Axis......Page 314
11-11 Conservation of Angular Momentum......Page 316
11-12 Precession of a Gyroscope......Page 320
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 321
QUESTIONS......Page 322
PROBLEMS......Page 323
12-2 Equilibrium......Page 331
12-3 The Requirements of Equilibrium......Page 332
12-4 The Center of Gravity......Page 334
12-5 Some Examples of Static Equilibrium......Page 335
12-6 Indeterminate Structures......Page 340
12-7 Elasticity......Page 341
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 344
QUESTIONS......Page 345
PROBLEMS......Page 346
13-2 Newton’s Law of Gravitation......Page 356
13-3 Gravitation and the Principle of Superposition......Page 359
13-4 Gravitation Near Earth’s Surface......Page 360
13-5 Gravitation Inside Earth......Page 363
13-6 Gravitational Potential Energy......Page 365
13-7 Planets and Satellites: Kepler’s Laws......Page 368
13-8 Satellites: Orbits and Energy......Page 371
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 375
QUESTIONS......Page 376
PROBLEMS......Page 377
14-3 Density and Pressure......Page 385
14-4 Fluids at Rest......Page 388
14-5 Measuring Pressure......Page 391
14-6 Pascal’s Principle......Page 392
14-7 Archimedes’ Principle......Page 393
14-8 Ideal Fluids in Motion......Page 397
14-9 The Equation of Continuity......Page 398
14-10 Bernoulli’s Equation......Page 400
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 403
QUESTIONS......Page 404
PROBLEMS......Page 405
15-2 Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 412
15-3 The Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 416
15-4 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 418
15-5 An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator......Page 420
15-6 Pendulums......Page 421
15-7 Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion......Page 424
15-8 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion......Page 426
15-9 Forced Oscillations and Resonance\r......Page 428
QUESTIONS......Page 429
PROBLEMS......Page 431
16-3 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves......Page 439
16-4 Wavelength and Frequency......Page 440
16-5 The Speed of a Traveling Wave......Page 443
16-6 Wave Speed on a Stretched String......Page 446
16-7 Energy and Power of a Wave Traveling Along a String......Page 447
16-8 The Wave Equation......Page 449
16-10 Interference of Waves......Page 451
16-11 Phasors......Page 454
16-12 Standing Waves......Page 457
16-13 Standing Waves and Resonance......Page 459
QUESTIONS......Page 462
PROBLEMS......Page 464
17-2 Sound Waves......Page 471
17-3 The Speed of Sound......Page 472
17-4 Traveling Sound Waves......Page 474
17-5 Interference......Page 477
17-6 Intensity and Sound Level......Page 478
17-7 Sources of Musical Sound......Page 482
17-8 Beats......Page 485
17-9 The Doppler Effect......Page 487
17-10 Supersonic Speeds, Shock Waves......Page 491
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 492
QUESTIONS......Page 493
PROBLEMS......Page 494
18-2 Temperature......Page 502
18-3 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics......Page 503
18-4 Measuring Temperature......Page 504
18-5 The Celsius and Fahrenheit Scales......Page 505
18-6 Thermal Expansion......Page 507
18-7 Temperature and Heat......Page 509
18-8 The Absorption of Heat by Solids and Liquids......Page 511
18-9 A Closer Look at Heat and Work......Page 514
18-10 The First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 517
18-11 Some Special Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics......Page 518
18-12 Heat Transfer Mechanisms......Page 520
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 523
QUESTIONS......Page 525
PROBLEMS......Page 526
19-2 Avogadro’s Number......Page 533
19-3 Ideal Gases......Page 534
19-4 Pressure, Temperature, and RMS Speed......Page 537
19-5 Translational Kinetic Energy......Page 539
19-6 Mean Free Path......Page 540
19-7 The Distribution of Molecular Speeds......Page 542
19-8 The Molar Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas......Page 545
19-9 Degrees of Freedom and Molar Specific Heats......Page 549
19-10 A Hint of Quantum Theory......Page 551
19-11 The Adiabatic Expansion of an Ideal Gas......Page 552
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 555
PROBLEMS......Page 556
20-2 Irreversible Processes and Entropy......Page 562
20-3 Change in Entropy......Page 563
20-4 The Second Law of Thermodynamics......Page 567
20-5 Entropy in the Real World: Engines......Page 569
20-6 Entropy in the Real World: Refrigerators......Page 574
20-7 The Efficiencies of Real Engines......Page 575
20-8 A Statistical View of Entropy......Page 576
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 580
QUESTIONS......Page 581
PROBLEMS......Page 582
21-2 Electric Charge......Page 587
21-3 Conductors and Insulators......Page 589
21-4 Coulomb’s Law......Page 591
21-5 Charge Is Quantized......Page 596
21-6 Charge Is Conserved......Page 598
QUESTIONS......Page 599
PROBLEMS......Page 601
22-2 The Electric Field......Page 606
22-3 Electric Field Lines......Page 607
22-4 The Electric Field Due to a Point Charge......Page 608
22-5 The Electric Field Due to an Electric Dipole......Page 610
22-6 The Electric Field Due to a Line of Charge......Page 612
22-7 The Electric Field Due to a Charged Disk......Page 617
22-8 A Point Charge in an Electric Field......Page 618
22-9 A Dipole in an Electric Field......Page 620
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 622
QUESTIONS......Page 623
PROBLEMS......Page 624
23-2 Flux......Page 631
23-3 Flux of an Electric Field......Page 632
23-4 Gauss’ Law......Page 634
23-6 A Charged Isolated Conductor......Page 638
23-7 Applying Gauss’ Law: Cylindrical Symmetry......Page 641
23-8 Applying Gauss’ Law: Planar Symmetry......Page 643
23-9 Applying Gauss’ Law: Spherical Symmetry......Page 645
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 646
QUESTIONS......Page 647
PROBLEMS......Page 648
24-2 Electric Potential Energy......Page 654
24-3 Electric Potential......Page 655
24-4 Equipotential Surfaces......Page 657
24-5 Calculating the Potential from the Field......Page 659
24-6 Potential Due to a Point Charge......Page 661
24-7 Potential Due to a Group of Point Charges......Page 662
24-8 Potential Due to an Electric Dipole......Page 663
24-9 Potential Due to a Continuous Charge Distribution......Page 665
24-10 Calculating the Field from the Potential......Page 667
24-11 Electric Potential Energy of a System of Point Charges......Page 668
24-12 Potential of a Charged Isolated Conductor......Page 670
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 672
QUESTIONS......Page 673
PROBLEMS......Page 674
25-2 Capacitance......Page 682
25-3 Calculating the Capacitance......Page 685
25-4 Capacitors in Parallel and in Series......Page 688
25-5 Energy Stored in an Electric Field......Page 693
25-6 Capacitor with a Dielectric......Page 695
25-7 Dielectrics: An Atomic View......Page 697
25-8 Dielectrics and Gauss’ Law......Page 698
QUESTIONS......Page 701
PROBLEMS......Page 702
26-2 Electric Current......Page 708
26-3 Current Density......Page 711
26-4 Resistance and Resistivity......Page 715
26-5 Ohm’s Law......Page 718
26-6 A Microscopic View of Ohm’s Law......Page 719
26-7 Power in Electric Circuits......Page 721
26-8 Semiconductors......Page 722
26-9 Superconductors......Page 723
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 724
QUESTIONS......Page 725
PROBLEMS......Page 726
27-2 “Pumping” Charges......Page 731
27-3 Work, Energy, and Emf......Page 732
27-4 Calculating the Current in a Single-Loop Circuit......Page 733
27-5 Other Single-Loop Circuits......Page 735
27-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points......Page 737
27-7 Multiloop Circuits......Page 740
27-9 RC Circuits......Page 746
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 750
QUESTIONS......Page 751
PROBLEMS......Page 752
28-2 What Produces a Magnetic Field?......Page 761
28-3 The Definition of B above arrow\r......Page 762
28-4 Crossed Fields: Discovery of the Electron......Page 766
28-5 Crossed Fields: The Hall Effect......Page 767
28-6 A Circulating Charged Particle......Page 770
28-7 Cyclotrons and Synchrotrons......Page 773
28-8 Magnetic Force on a Current-Carrying Wire......Page 776
28-9 Torque on a Current Loop......Page 778
28-10 The Magnetic Dipole Moment......Page 779
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 781
QUESTIONS......Page 782
PROBLEMS......Page 783
29-2 Calculating the Magnetic Field Due to a Current......Page 790
29-3 Force Between Two Parallel Currents......Page 796
29-4 Ampere’s Law 771......Page 797
29-5 Solenoids and Toroids......Page 800
29-6 A Current-Carrying Coil as a Magnetic Dipole......Page 804
QUESTIONS......Page 807
PROBLEMS......Page 809
30-2 Two Experiments......Page 817
30-3 Faraday’s Law of Induction......Page 818
30-4 Lenz’s Law......Page 820
30-5 Induction and Energy Transfers......Page 823
30-6 Induced Electric Fields......Page 826
30-7 Inductors and Inductance......Page 831
30-8 Self-Induction......Page 832
30-9 RL Circuits......Page 833
30-10 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field......Page 837
30-11 Energy Density of a Magnetic Field......Page 838
30-12 Mutual Induction......Page 839
QUESTIONS......Page 842
PROBLEMS......Page 844
31-2 LC Oscillations, Qualitatively......Page 852
31-3 The Electrical–Mechanical Analogy......Page 855
31-4 LC Oscillations, Quantitatively......Page 856
31-5 Damped Oscillations in an RLC Circuit......Page 859
31-6 Alternating Current......Page 861
31-8 Three Simple Circuit......Page 862
31-9 The Series RLC Circui......Page 868
31-10 Power in Alternating-Current Circuits......Page 873
31-11 Transformers......Page 876
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 879
QUESTIONS......Page 880
PROBLEMS......Page 881
32-1 What Is Physics?......Page 887
32-2 Gauss’ Law for Magnetic Fields......Page 888
32-3 Induced Magnetic Fields......Page 889
32-4 Displacement Current......Page 892
32-6 Magnets......Page 895
32-7 Magnetism and Electrons......Page 897
32-9 Diamagnetism......Page 901
32-9 Diamagnetism......Page 903
32-11 Ferromagnetism......Page 905
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 907
QUESTIONS......Page 909
PROBLEMS......Page 910
33-2 Maxwell’s Rainbow......Page 915
33-3 The Traveling Electromagnetic Wave, Qualitatively......Page 916
33-4 The Traveling Electromagnetic Wave, Quantitatively......Page 920
33-5 Energy Transport and the Poynting Vector......Page 923
33-6 Radiation Pressure......Page 925
33-7 Polarization......Page 927
33-8 Reflection and Refraction......Page 930
33-9 Total Internal Reflection......Page 937
33-10 Polarization by Reflection......Page 938
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 939
QUESTIONS......Page 940
PROBLEMS......Page 941
34-2 Two Types of Image......Page 950
34-3 Plane Mirrors......Page 952
34-4 Spherical Mirrors......Page 954
34-5 Images from Spherical Mirrors......Page 956
34-6 Spherical Refracting Surfaces......Page 960
34-7 Thin Lenses......Page 962
34-8 Optical Instruments......Page 969
34-9 Three Proofs......Page 972
REVIEW & SUMMARY......Page 974
QUESTIONS......Page 975
PROBLEMS......Page 976
35-2 Light as a Wave......Page 984
35-3 Diffraction......Page 989
35-4 Young’s Interference Experiment......Page 990
35-6 Intensity in Double-Slit Interference......Page 995
35-7 Interference from Thin Films......Page 999
35-8 Michelson’s Interferometer......Page 1006
QUESTIONS......Page 1007
PROBLEMS......Page 1009
36-2 Diffraction and the Wave Theory of Light......Page 1016
36-3 Diffraction by a Single Slit: Locating the Minima......Page 1018
36-4 Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction, Qualitatively......Page 1021
36-5 Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction, Quantitatively......Page 1023
36-6 Diffraction by a Circular Aperture......Page 1026
36-7 Diffraction by a Double Slit......Page 1029
36-8 Diffraction Gratings......Page 1032
36-9 Gratings: Dispersion and Resolving Power......Page 1035
36-10 X-Ray Diffraction\r......Page 1037
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 1039
QUESTIONS\r......Page 1040
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1041
37-1 What Is Physics?\r......Page 1048
37-2 The Postulates\r......Page 1049
37-3 Measuring an Event\r......Page 1050
37-4 The Relativity of Simultaneity\r......Page 1051
37-5 The Relativity of Time\r......Page 1053
37-6 The Relativity of Length......Page 1057
37-7 The Lorentz Transformation\r......Page 1061
37-8 Some Consequences of the Lorentz Equations\r......Page 1063
37-9 The Relativity of Velocities\r......Page 1065
37-10 Doppler Effect for Light\r......Page 1066
37-11 A New Look at Momentum\r......Page 1068
37-12 A New Look at Energy\r......Page 1069
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 1074
QUESTIONS......Page 1075
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1076
38-2 The Photon, the Quantum of Light\r......Page 1083
38-3 The Photoelectric Effect\r......Page 1085
38-4 Photons Have Momentum\r......Page 1088
38-5 Light as a Probability Wave\r......Page 1091
38-6 Electrons and Matter Waves\r......Page 1093
38-7 Schrödinger’s Equation......Page 1097
38-8 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle......Page 1099
38-9 Barrier Tunneling......Page 1100
QUESTIONS......Page 1103
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1104
39-2 String Waves and Matter Waves\r......Page 1109
39-3 Energies of a Trapped Electron......Page 1110
39-4 Wave Functions of a Trapped Electron \r......Page 1114
39-5 An Electron in a Finite Well......Page 1117
39-6 More Electron Traps\r......Page 1119
39-7 Two- and Three-Dimensional Electron Traps\r......Page 1121
39-8 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom\r......Page 1122
39-9 Schrödinger’s Equation and the Hydrogen Atom\r......Page 1125
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 1132
QUESTIONS\r......Page 1133
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1134
40-2 Some Properties of Atoms\r......Page 1138
40-4 Angular Momenta and Magnetic Dipole Moments......Page 1141
40-5 The Stern–Gerlach Experiment\r......Page 1144
40-6 Magnetic Resonance\r......Page 1146
40-8 Multiple Electrons in Rectangular Traps\r......Page 1147
40-9 Building the Periodic Table\r......Page 1150
40-10 X Rays and the Ordering of the Elements\r......Page 1153
40-11 Lasers and Laser Light\r......Page 1157
40-12 How Lasers Work\r......Page 1158
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 1161
QUESTIONS\r......Page 1162
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1163
41-2 The Electrical Properties of Solids\r......Page 1168
41-3 Energy Levels in a Crystalline Solid\r......Page 1169
41-4 Insulators\r......Page 1170
41-5 Metals\r......Page 1171
41-6 Semiconductors\r......Page 1176
41-7 Doped Semiconductors\r......Page 1178
41-8 The p-n Junction\r......Page 1180
41-9 The Junction Rectifier......Page 1182
41-10 The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)\r......Page 1183
41-11 The Transistor\r......Page 1185
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 1186
QUESTIONS\r......Page 1187
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1188
42-2 Discovering the Nucleus\r......Page 1191
42-3 Some Nuclear Properties\r......Page 1194
42-4 Radioactive Decay\r......Page 1200
42-5 Alpha Decay\r......Page 1203
42-6 Beta Decay\r......Page 1206
42-7 Radioactive Dating\r......Page 1209
42-9 Nuclear Models\r......Page 1210
REVIEW & SUMMARY\r......Page 1213
QUESTIONS\r......Page 1214
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1215
43-1 What Is Physics?\r......Page 1221
43-2 Nuclear Fission: The Basic Process\r......Page 1222
43-3 A Model for Nuclear Fission\r......Page 1225
43-4 The Nuclear Reactor\r......Page 1228
43-5 A Natural Nuclear Reactor\r......Page 1232
43-6 Thermonuclear Fusion: The Basic Process\r......Page 1233
43-7 Thermonuclear Fusion in the Sun and Other Stars\r......Page 1235
43-8 Controlled Thermonuclear Fusion\r......Page 1237
QUESTIONS\r......Page 1239
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1240
44-1 What Is Physics?\r......Page 1244
44-2 Particles, Particles, Particles\r......Page 1245
44-3 An Interlude\r......Page 1248
44-4 The Leptons\r......Page 1253
44-5 The Hadrons\r......Page 1254
44-6 Still Another Conservation Law\r......Page 1256
44-7 The Eightfold Way\r......Page 1257
44-8 The Quark Model\r......Page 1258
44-9 The Basic Forces and Messenger Particles\r......Page 1261
44-10 A Pause for Reflection\r......Page 1263
44-11 The Universe Is Expanding\r......Page 1264
44-12 The Cosmic Background Radiation\r......Page 1265
44-14 The Big Bang\r......Page 1266
44-15 A Summing Up\r......Page 1269
QUESTIONS\r......Page 1270
PROBLEMS\r......Page 1271
A The International System of Units (SI)\r......Page 1275
B Some Fundamental Constants of Physics\r......Page 1277
C Some Astronomical Data\r......Page 1278
D Conversion Factors\r......Page 1279
E Mathematical Formulas\r......Page 1283
F Properties of the Elements\r......Page 1286
G Periodic Table of the Elements\r......Page 1289
ANSWERS\r......Page 1291
INDEX\r......Page 1303