Functional polysaccharides for biomedical applications

Front Cover......Page 1
Functional Polysaccharides for Biomedical Applications......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 12
About the editors......Page 16
Preface......Page 18
 1.1 Introduction......Page 20
  1.2.1 Monosaccharides......Page 21
  1.2.2 Oligosaccharide......Page 22
  1.2.3 Polysaccharide......Page 23
 1.3 Natural occurrence and classifications......Page 26
 1.4 IUPAC nomenclature......Page 28
 1.5 Structure determination (ring size and linkage type)......Page 32
  1.5.2 Fractional analysis......Page 33
  1.5.4 Periodate oxidation......Page 34
  1.5.5 Enzymatic method......Page 35
 1.6 Molecular modification......Page 36
    Esterification......Page 38
   1.6.1.2 Amine group modification......Page 39
   1.6.1.4 Click chemistry......Page 40
   1.6.1.5 Oxidation in modification......Page 43
  1.6.2 Physical modification......Page 44
 1.7 Conclusion......Page 45
 References......Page 46
 2.2 Biomedical applications......Page 52
  2.3.1 Chitosan......Page 53
    Molecular weight......Page 55
    Degree of deacetylation (DDA)......Page 56
    The pH of the transfection medium......Page 57
   2.3.1.2 Chemical modifications of chitosan......Page 58
     Hydrophilic modification......Page 59
     Specific ligand modification......Page 61
   2.3.2.1 Alginate......Page 64
   2.3.3.1 Pullulan......Page 65
   2.3.3.2 Dextran......Page 66
 2.4 Wound-healing materials......Page 67
   2.4.1.1 Alginate — structure......Page 68
   2.4.1.2 Role of alginate in wound healing......Page 69
    Role in macrophage stimulation......Page 70
    Role in chronic wound management......Page 71
    Alginate sponges......Page 72
    Hybrid wound care materials......Page 73
    Alginate-based hydrogels......Page 74
   2.4.1.4 Biodegradation of alginate......Page 75
    Alginate in protein delivery......Page 76
  2.4.2 Chitosan-based biomaterials......Page 77
   2.4.2.2 Wound-healing property of chitosan......Page 78
   2.4.2.4 Chitosan sponges......Page 79
   2.4.2.5 Chitosan hydrogels......Page 81
   2.4.2.6 Chitosan films......Page 82
   2.4.2.7 Chitosan nanoparticles......Page 83
   2.4.2.8 Chitosan scaffold......Page 86
  2.5.1 Chitosan-based tissue engineering scaffolds......Page 87
   2.5.1.1 Chitosan in bone tissue engineering......Page 88
   2.5.1.3 Cartilage tissue engineering......Page 89
  2.5.2 Alginate based tissue engineering scaffolds......Page 90
 2.6 Polymer drug conjugates......Page 91
  2.6.1 Mode of conjugation......Page 92
   2.6.2.1 Dextran......Page 94
   2.6.2.2 Hyaluronic acid......Page 95
 References......Page 96
 Further reading......Page 113
 3.1 Introduction......Page 114
 3.2 Synthesis of SPHs......Page 115
  3.3.1 CS SPHs......Page 119
  3.3.2 Glycol Chitosan (CS) SPHs......Page 123
  3.3.3 Chitosan (CS)-hydroxyapatite......Page 125
  3.3.4 Chitosan (CS)-PVP/PVA......Page 127
  3.3.5 Chitosan (CS)-poly (acrylamide)......Page 129
  3.3.6 Chitosan (CS)-other polysaccharides......Page 135
 3.4 Alginate-based SPHs......Page 136
 3.5 Conclusion......Page 138
 References......Page 144
 4.1 Introduction......Page 150
 4.2 Selective properties of ionic liquids for dissolving polysaccharides......Page 152
  4.3.1 Dissolution mechanism of cellulose in ILs......Page 154
  4.3.2 Dissolution mechanism of chitin in ILs......Page 156
  4.4.1 Cellulose......Page 157
  4.4.2 Alginate......Page 158
  4.4.3 Chitin/chitosan......Page 159
  4.4.4 Guar gum......Page 160
  4.4.5 Carrageenan......Page 161
 4.5 Polysaccharide-based materials prepared by using ILs......Page 163
  4.5.1 Films, coatings, and membranes......Page 164
  4.5.2 Fibers......Page 165
  4.5.3 Gels and aerogels......Page 167
  4.5.4 Electrochemical devices......Page 169
  4.5.5 Blends......Page 171
  4.5.6 Functional materials......Page 173
  4.5.7 Composites......Page 176
 4.6 Scope of biomedical applications......Page 178
 4.7 Future scope of polysaccharide-based materials processing with the aid of ILs......Page 179
 References......Page 180
 Further reading......Page 190
 5.1 Introduction......Page 192
  5.2.1 Insulin and protein delivery......Page 193
  5.2.3 Anticancer drug delivery......Page 195
  5.2.4 Antibiotic delivery......Page 196
  5.2.6 Antiinflammatory drug delivery......Page 198
  5.2.8 Gene delivery......Page 201
 References......Page 202
 6.1 Introduction......Page 208
 6.2 Principles of tissue regeneration......Page 209
 6.3 Polysaccharide characteristics and properties......Page 211
  6.4.1 Cellulose (CeL)......Page 212
  6.4.2 Starch (AmY)......Page 217
 6.5 Hetero-polysaccharide......Page 218
  6.5.1 Chitosan (CS)......Page 219
  6.5.2 Alginate (ALG)......Page 223
   6.5.3.1 Chondroitin sulfate......Page 224
   6.5.3.2 Hyaluronic acid......Page 225
  6.5.4 Dextran (DeX)......Page 226
 6.6 Scaffold preparation methods......Page 227
 References......Page 228
 7.1 Introduction......Page 232
  7.2.1 Sources of HA......Page 236
  7.2.2 Structure and properties of HA......Page 240
 7.3 Chemical modification in synthesis of HA......Page 242
  7.3.1 Chemical modification by amidation......Page 250
  7.3.4 Chemical modification by ether formation......Page 251
   7.4.1.1 HA in TE......Page 252
   7.4.1.2 HA in dermal filler......Page 255
   7.4.1.3 HA in VS......Page 259
   7.4.1.5 HA in ocular treatment......Page 260
  7.4.2 HA in drug delivery......Page 262
  7.4.3 HA in delivery of therapeutic and biological competent cells......Page 264
  7.4.4 HA in delivery of vaccines and gene therapy......Page 265
   7.4.5.1 HA in otolaryngology......Page 266
   7.4.5.3 HA in nasal drug delivery......Page 267
   7.4.5.4 HA in colon drug delivery......Page 268
 7.6 Conclusion......Page 269
 References......Page 275
 Further reading......Page 283
 8.1 Introduction......Page 286
 8.3 Preparation of polysaccharide-based metal NPs......Page 287
 8.4 Characterization of NPs......Page 289
  8.5.1 Antimicrobial properties of AuNPs......Page 292
  8.5.2 Antimicrobial properties of polysaccharide-based AgNPs......Page 294
  8.5.4 Antiviral properties of polysaccharide-based AgNPs......Page 295
  8.5.6 Anticancer properties of polysaccharide-based AuNPs......Page 297
  8.5.7 Anticancer properties of polysaccharide-based AgNPs......Page 298
  8.5.8 Wound healing and antiinflammatory properties of polysaccharide-based AuNPs......Page 299
  8.5.9 Wound healing properties of polysaccharide-based AgNPs......Page 302
  8.5.10 Drug delivery and release properties of polysaccharide-based AuNPs......Page 303
  8.5.12 Biosensing properties of polysaccharide-based AuNPs......Page 304
  8.5.13 Biosensing properties of polysaccharide-based AgNPs......Page 306
 8.6 Catalysis of polysaccharide-based AuNPs......Page 310
 8.8 Toxicity of polysaccharide-based AuNPs......Page 312
 8.9 Toxicity of polysaccharide-based AgNPs......Page 313
 References......Page 314
 Further reading......Page 323
 9.1 Introduction......Page 324
 9.3 Nanographene oxide......Page 326
 9.4 Different structures of graphene oxides......Page 328
  9.5.1 Modified Hummer’s method......Page 330
  9.5.5 David Boyd method......Page 331
  9.6.2 Create night-vision contact lenses......Page 332
  9.6.3 Bioimaging applications......Page 333
  9.6.4 Breath nanosensors for the diagnosis of diabetes......Page 334
  9.6.7 Function of GO in living cells proves popular......Page 335
  9.6.8 GO treated in cancer steam cell......Page 336
  9.6.9 Neutron activation therapy......Page 337
  9.6.10 Applications of GO in nanomedicine......Page 338
  9.6.11 Drug delivery......Page 339
 9.7 Other applications of GO......Page 340
 References......Page 343
 10.1 Introduction and background......Page 348
  10.1.1 Historical overview of biomedical applications of metals......Page 349
  10.1.3 Green synthesis of metal nanoparticles: Pros and cons......Page 350
 10.2 Biomedical applications of green-synthesized metal nanoparticles......Page 351
  10.2.1 Drug delivery......Page 352
  10.2.2 Anticancer activity......Page 354
  10.2.3 Antimicrobial activity......Page 355
  10.2.4 Wound healing......Page 359
  10.2.5 Bio-imaging......Page 361
  10.2.6 Bio-sensing......Page 362
  10.2.7 Blood coagulation......Page 364
  10.2.8 Other applications......Page 365
 10.3 In vivo toxicity studies of green-synthesized metal nanoparticles......Page 366
 10.4 Challenges and future prospects of green-synthesized metal nanoparticles......Page 367
 References......Page 368
 11.1 Introduction......Page 376
  11.2.2 Enzyme immobilization......Page 377
  11.2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of immobilized enzymes......Page 380
   11.2.4.4 Enzymes for medical applications......Page 381
   11.2.5.2 Medical field......Page 382
   11.2.5.4 Food industry......Page 383
   11.2.5.7 Cosmetics......Page 384
  11.3.2 General application......Page 385
 11.4 Types of polysaccharides used for fabrication of immobilization supports......Page 386
  11.4.1 Cellulose......Page 387
  11.4.2 Chitosan and Chitin......Page 389
  11.4.5 Carrageenan......Page 390
  11.5.1 Cellulose......Page 391
  11.5.2 Chitin and chitosan......Page 397
  11.5.3 Alginate......Page 400
  11.5.4 Starch......Page 403
  11.5.5 Pectin......Page 404
  11.5.6 Sepharose......Page 405
 11.6 Future perspective—The challenges in polysaccharide-based enzyme immobilization research......Page 406
 References......Page 407
 12.1 Introduction......Page 416
  12.2.1 Transcriptomic-based biomarkers......Page 418
  12.2.2 Nontranscriptome-based biomarkers......Page 419
  12.3.1 Electrochemical biosensor......Page 426
   12.3.1.2 Potentiometric-based biosensor......Page 429
   12.3.1.3 Electrochemical impedance-based biosensor......Page 431
   12.3.1.4 Differential pulse voltammetry-based biosensor......Page 432
  12.3.2 Optical-based biosensor......Page 433
   12.3.2.1 ELISA......Page 434
   12.3.2.2 Fluorescence immunoassays (FIA)......Page 435
   12.3.2.3 Chemiluminescence and colorimetric-based immunoassays......Page 436
   12.3.2.4 SPR-based biosensor......Page 437
  12.3.5 Biosensors at the point of care......Page 439
 12.4 Conclusion and perspective......Page 440
 References......Page 441
  13.1.1 Dextran......Page 452
  13.1.3 Cellulose derivatives......Page 453
  13.1.5 Alginic acid......Page 454
  13.2.1 Liposomes......Page 455
  13.2.2 General characterization of liposomes......Page 456
  13.2.4 Methods for liposomes preparation......Page 457
   13.2.4.1 Preparation of liposomes by microfluidic mixing......Page 458
  13.2.5 Lab-on-Chip......Page 459
  13.3.2 Oriented ligation of unprotected natural saccharide......Page 460
   13.3.4.1 Copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition......Page 462
   13.3.5.1 Diels-Alder reactions......Page 463
  13.3.6 Oxime ligation as a kind of “click chemistry” reaction for orthogonal binding of saccharides......Page 464
 13.4 Oxime ligation for modification of liposomes by HA and mannan......Page 465
   13.4.1.1 Aminoxy coupling......Page 466
   13.4.1.2 Targeting of HA liposomes to CD44 expressing cells......Page 467
  13.4.2 Mannan and mannosylated liposomes......Page 471
   13.4.2.2 Preparation and characterization of mannans-coated nanoliposomes......Page 472
   13.4.2.3 Electron microscopy......Page 474
   13.4.2.4 Stimulation of DCs by free mannan and mannan-coated nanoliposomes......Page 475
   13.4.2.5 Mannan-modified liposomes as a platform for targeted drug delivery systems and self-adjuvant carrier for ant .........Page 477
 References......Page 479
 14.1 Introduction......Page 488
 14.2 Aptamer: Its structure and function......Page 489
 14.3 Nanoparticles for targeted pharmacotherapy......Page 491
 14.5 Aptamer-small molecule conjugated systems......Page 492
 14.7 Organic and inorganic nanomaterials......Page 493
   14.7.1.2 Nanoscale iron oxides......Page 496
   14.7.1.3 Carbon nanomaterials......Page 497
   14.7.1.4 Mesoporous silica NPs......Page 498
   14.7.1.5 Quantum dots......Page 499
   14.7.2.2 Poly(lactide- co -glycolic acid) NPs......Page 500
   14.7.2.3 Polymeric micelles (PMs)......Page 501
   14.7.2.4 Dendrimers......Page 502
  14.8.1 Aptamers as therapeutics for targeted drug delivery......Page 503
 14.9 Properties of aptamers and their biological applications......Page 504
 14.10 Future perspective and conclusions......Page 505
 References......Page 506
 Further reading......Page 513
Index......Page 514
Back Cover......Page 530