Functional Fillers for Plastics, Second Edition

Functional Fillers for Plastics......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Preface to the 2nd Edition......Page 19
Preface to the 1st Edition......Page 21
List of Contributors......Page 25
List of Symbols......Page 29
Part One: Polymers and Fillers......Page 31
1.1 Thermoplastics and Thermosets......Page 33
1.2 Processing of Thermoplastics and Thermosets......Page 34
1.3 Polymer Composites......Page 35
1.3.1 Types and Components of Polymer Composites......Page 36
1.3.2 Parameters Affecting Properties of Composites......Page 38
1.3.3 Effects of Fillers/Reinforcements: Functions......Page 39
1.3.5.1 Classification and Types......Page 42
1.3.5.2 Applications, Trends, and Challenges......Page 44
References......Page 47
2.1 Introduction......Page 49
2.2 The Importance of the Interface......Page 50
2.3.1 General......Page 51
2.3.2.1 Continuous Reinforcements......Page 52
2.3.2.2 Discontinuous Reinforcements......Page 54
2.3.3 Modulus of Composites Incorporating Particulates......Page 58
2.3.4.1 Continuous Reinforcements......Page 59
2.3.4.2 Discontinuous Reinforcements......Page 61
2.3.6 Toughness Considerations......Page 63
2.3.8.1 Tribological Properties......Page 65
2.4.2 Melt Rheology of Filled Polymers......Page 66
2.4.2.2 Filler Size and Shape......Page 67
2.4.2.3 Filler Surface Treatments......Page 68
2.4.3 Processing/Structure/Property Relationships......Page 69
References......Page 71
3.1 Introduction......Page 73
3.2 Pretreatment of Fillers......Page 74
3.3 Feeding......Page 75
3.5 Solids Introduction and Mixing......Page 81
3.7 Pressure Generation......Page 85
3.8 Process Examples......Page 87
References......Page 89
Part Two: Surface Modifiers and Coupling Agents......Page 91
4.1 Introduction......Page 93
4.2 Production and Structures of Monomeric Silanes......Page 94
4.3 Silane Chemistry......Page 95
4.4.2 Oligomeric Silanes......Page 96
4.5 Silane Hydrolysis......Page 97
4.6 Reactivity of Silanes Toward the Filler......Page 99
4.7 Combining Silanes and Mineral Fillers......Page 100
4.7.2 Method II......Page 101
4.8.1.1 FTIR/Raman Spectroscopy......Page 102
4.8.1.3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy......Page 103
4.8.2 Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography......Page 106
4.8.7 Silane/Colorant Combined Surface Modification......Page 107
4.9 Selection of Silanes......Page 108
4.10.1 Vinylsilanes......Page 110
4.10.2.1 General......Page 111
4.10.2.2 Calcined Clay-Filled Polyamides......Page 112
4.10.2.4 MDH-Filled Polypropylene......Page 113
4.10.3.3 Silica-Filled UV-Cured Acrylates for Scratch-Resistant Coatings......Page 115
4.10.4 Epoxysilanes......Page 116
4.10.8 Polyetherfunctional Silanes......Page 117
References......Page 118
5.1 Introduction......Page 121
5.2 The Six Functions of the Titanate Molecule......Page 122
5.2.1.2 Dispersion......Page 125
5.2.1.3 Adhesion......Page 127
5.2.1.5 Titanate Application Considerations......Page 128
5.2.2 Effects of Function (2)......Page 129
5.2.3 Effects of Function (3)......Page 131
5.2.4 Effects of Function (4)......Page 132
5.2.4.2 Carbon Black-Filled Polymers......Page 133
5.2.4.3 Other Functional Inorganics/Organics Used in Thermoplastics and Thermosets......Page 135
5.2.6 Effects of Function (6)......Page 137
5.2.7 Dispersion of Nanofillers or \"Making Nanofillers Work\"......Page 139
5.3 Summary and Conclusions......Page 141
References......Page 142
6.1 Introduction......Page 145
6.2.2 Coupling Modifiers......Page 146
6.3.1.2 Saturated Monocarboxylic Acids (Fatty Acids) and Their Salts......Page 147
6.3.1.3 Unsaturated Carboxylic Acids and Related Compounds......Page 153
6.3.1.4 Carboxylic Acid Anhydrides......Page 158
6.3.1.5 Bismaleimides......Page 159
6.3.1.8 Other Carboxylic Acid Derivatives......Page 161
6.3.5.1 Functionalized Polyolefins......Page 162
6.3.5.2 Functionalized Polybutadienes......Page 166
6.3.6 Organic Amines and Their Derivatives......Page 167
References......Page 168
A High Aspect Ratio Fillers......Page 171
7.1 Background......Page 173
7.2 Production Methods......Page 174
7.3 Structure and Properties......Page 178
7.5 Cost/Availability......Page 179
7.6 Environmental/Toxicity Considerations......Page 182
7.7 Applications......Page 184
7.8 Environmental Impact......Page 188
References......Page 191
8.1 Background......Page 193
8.2 Production Methods......Page 195
8.3 Structure and Properties......Page 196
8.5 Cost/Availability......Page 200
8.7.1 General......Page 201
8.7.2 Primary Function......Page 202
8.7.3 Other Functions......Page 203
References......Page 204
9.1.2 Concept and Technology......Page 207
9.2.1 Raw and Intermediate Materials......Page 208
9.2.2 Purification and Surface Treatment......Page 209
9.2.3 Synthetic Clays......Page 210
9.3 Structure and Properties......Page 211
9.5 Cost/Availability......Page 213
9.7 Applications......Page 214
References......Page 217
10.2.1 Types of Carbon Nanotubes/Nanofibers and Their Synthesis......Page 219
10.2.2 Types of Carbon Fibers and Their Synthesis......Page 221
10.2.2.1 PAN-Based Carbon Fibers......Page 222
10.2.2.2 Carbon Fibers from Pitch:......Page 223
10.2.2.5 Vapor-Grown Carbon Fibers......Page 224
10.2.3 Chemical Modification/Derivatization Methods......Page 225
10.2.4 Polymer Matrices......Page 226
10.3.1 Fabrication......Page 227
10.3.2 Mechanical and Electrical Property Modification......Page 228
10.5 Environmental/Toxicity Considerations......Page 232
10.6 Applications......Page 235
References......Page 236
B Low Aspect Ratio Fillers......Page 241
11.1 Introduction......Page 243
11.2 Structure and Production Methods......Page 244
11.3.1 Chemical Components......Page 245
11.3.3 Moisture and Durability......Page 246
11.4 Suppliers......Page 248
11.7 Applications (Primary and Secondary Functions)......Page 249
References......Page 252
12.1 Production Methods......Page 255
12.2 Structure and Properties......Page 256
12.4 Cost/Availability......Page 260
12.5 Environmental/Toxicity Considerations......Page 262
12.6.1 General......Page 263
12.6.2.1 Polyolefins......Page 264
12.6.2.3 Styrenics and Thermoplastic Elastomers......Page 267
References......Page 268
13.1 Introduction......Page 271
13.2.2 Beneficiation......Page 273
13.2.4 Calcination......Page 276
13.3 Properties......Page 277
13.4 Suppliers......Page 278
13.5 Cost/Availability......Page 280
13.7.1 Primary Function......Page 281
13.7.2.1 Improvement of Electrical Properties......Page 284
13.7.2.2 TiO2 Extension......Page 286
References......Page 287
14.1 Introduction......Page 289
14.3 Structure and Properties......Page 290
14.4 Suppliers/Cost......Page 292
14.5 Environmental/Toxicity Considerations......Page 293
14.6 Applications Involving the Plastics Compounding Industry......Page 294
14.8 Future Considerations for Use of Wollastonite in Plastics......Page 297
References......Page 298
15.1 Introduction......Page 299
15.2 Production Methods......Page 300
15.3.1 Wood Anatomy......Page 302
15.3.2 Chemical Components......Page 304
15.3.4 Moisture......Page 306
15.3.5 Durability......Page 308
15.3.6 Thermal Properties......Page 310
15.4 Suppliers......Page 311
15.7.1 Thermosets......Page 312
15.7.2 Thermoplastics......Page 313
References......Page 318
16.1 Background......Page 321
16.2 Production Methods......Page 322
16.4 Suppliers......Page 324
16.6 Environmental, Toxicity, and Sustainability Considerations......Page 325
16.7.2 Polyvinyl Chloride......Page 326
16.7.4 Polyolefin Moldings......Page 328
16.7.5 Polyolefin Films......Page 331
16.7.6 Polyolefin Microporous Films......Page 332
16.7.7 Nonwoven Fabrics......Page 333
References......Page 335
C Specialty Fillers......Page 337
17.1 Introduction......Page 339
17.2 Combustion of Polymers and the Combustion Cycle......Page 340
17.4 Smoke......Page 341
17.4.1 Toxicity......Page 342
17.5 Flammability of Polymers......Page 344
17.6.1 Condensed Phase......Page 345
17.6.2 Chemical Effects in the Gas Phase......Page 346
17.7.1 Metal Hydroxides......Page 347
17.7.1.1 Aluminum Trihydrate......Page 348
17.7.1.2 Magnesium Hydroxide......Page 354
17.7.2.1 Mechanism of Action......Page 355
17.7.2.3 Bromine-Containing Fire Retardants......Page 356
17.7.2.4 Chlorine-Containing Flame Retardants......Page 357
17.7.5 Phosphorus-Containing Flame Retardants......Page 359
17.7.5.1 Mechanism of Action......Page 360
17.7.5.4 Ammonium Polyphosphate......Page 361
17.7.6 Low Melting Temperature Glasses......Page 364
17.7.8 Nanosized Fire Retardants......Page 365
17.8 Tools and Testing......Page 366
17.9 Toxicity......Page 367
17.9.3 Brominated Fire Retardants......Page 368
17.9.4 Chlorinated Fire Retardants......Page 369
17.9.6 Phosphorus-Containing Fire Retardants......Page 370
17.9.8 Nanosized FRs......Page 371
17.11 Concluding Remarks......Page 373
References......Page 374
18.1 Introduction......Page 381
18.2.2 Varieties......Page 382
18.2.3 Commercial Sources......Page 383
18.3.1 General......Page 385
18.3.3 Effects of Carbon Black Type......Page 387
18.3.4 Effects of Polymer Matrix......Page 388
18.3.5 Other Applications......Page 389
18.4.2 Percolation Networks......Page 390
18.4.4 Process Effects on Dispersion......Page 391
18.6 Intrinsically Conductive Polymers (ICPs)......Page 392
18.7 Metal Particle Composites......Page 393
18.8 Magnetic Fillers......Page 396
18.10 Appendix: Measurements of Resistivity......Page 397
References......Page 398
19.1 Introduction......Page 403
19.2.1.1 Molybdenite......Page 404
19.2.1.4 Boron Nitride......Page 405
19.2.2.2 Graphite......Page 406
19.2.2.4 Boron Nitride......Page 407
19.2.3.1 Molybdenite......Page 408
19.2.3.2 Graphite......Page 409
19.2.3.3 Polytetrafluoroethylene......Page 413
19.2.3.4 Boron Nitride......Page 414
19.2.5 Cost/Availability......Page 416
19.2.6.1 Molybdenite......Page 418
19.2.6.2 Graphite......Page 421
19.2.7 Applications......Page 422
19.3.1 General......Page 424
19.3.2.1 Production......Page 425
19.3.2.4 Environmental/Toxicity Considerations......Page 427
19.3.2.5 Applications of Silicas......Page 431
References......Page 432
20.1 Introduction......Page 437
20.2.1 Magnesium Oxide......Page 438
20.2.3 Hydrotalcites......Page 439
20.3.1 Magnesium Oxide......Page 441
20.3.3 Hydrotalcites......Page 442
20.4 Suppliers/Manufacturers......Page 444
20.5.1 Magnesium Oxide......Page 445
20.6.1 Magnesium Oxide......Page 446
20.6.2 Fumed Silica......Page 449
20.6.3 Hydrotalcites......Page 450
References......Page 451
21.1.2 Production and Properties......Page 455
21.1.3 General Functions......Page 457
21.1.4 Applications in Thermoplastics......Page 459
21.1.5 Applications in Thermosets and Rubbers......Page 462
21.1.7 Surface Functionalization......Page 463
21.2.1 Introduction......Page 464
21.2.2 Production and Properties......Page 465
21.2.3 Functions......Page 466
References......Page 468
22.2 Bone as a Biocomposite......Page 471
22.3.1 Bioceramics for Tissue Engineering Applications......Page 472
22.3.2 Mechanisms and Procedure for In Vitro Evaluation of Bioactivity......Page 473
22.4.1 Hydroxyapatite......Page 474
22.4.3 Calcium Carbonate......Page 478
22.4.4 Bioactive Glasses......Page 479
22.4.5 Apatite–Wollastonite Glass Ceramic......Page 481
22.4.6 Other Bioactive Fillers......Page 482
22.6 Fillers Formed In Situ......Page 483
22.7 Recent Developments – Nanostructured Bioactive Fillers......Page 484
References......Page 485
23.2 Production......Page 489
23.3 Structure and Properties......Page 490
23.4 Suppliers/Cost......Page 493
23.6.1 Primary Function......Page 494
23.6.2 Secondary Function......Page 496
References......Page 497
24.1 Introduction......Page 499
24.2 Methodology for the Production of Bicontinuous Nanocomposites......Page 500
24.3 General Properties of Bicontinuous Phase Nanocomposites......Page 502
24.4.1 Epoxy/Silica Systems for Coating Applications......Page 504
24.4.2.1 General......Page 510
24.4.2.2 Coatings for Glass Fibers......Page 514
24.4.2.3 Polyimide/Silica Matrix......Page 516
References......Page 518
Index......Page 521