Fruit Crops: Diagnosis and Management of Nutrient Constraints

Cover
FRUIT CROPS;
Diagnosis and Management of Nutrient
Constraints
Copyright
Contributors
Editors’ biography
Preface
1
Fruits and nutritional security
	General
	Fruits
		Nutritional components of fruits
			Lipids
			Water
			Proteins
			Carbohydrates
			Ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
			Folic acid
			Potassium
		Bioactive compounds in fruits
			Phytochemicals
			Phenolics
			Phenolic acid
			Flavonoids
			Tannins
			Anthocyanins
	Therapeutic benefits of fruits
		Anticancer properties
		Cardiovascular protection
		Hypercholesterolemia
		Brain health
		Immunity
		Diabetes
		Infectious diseases
	Conclusion
	Future perspectives
	References
	Further reading
2
Nutrient density of fruit crops as a function of soil fertility
	Defining nutrient density and its importance
	Soil fertility and nutrient-dense crops
		Crop nutrition and fruit composition
		Wastewater irrigation and fertilization
		Hydroponics
		Organic fertilization
		Fruiting disorders and nutrient composition
			Rootstocks
			Mycorrhizal associations and fruit composition
	Future research
	References
	Further reading
3
Nutrient redistribution in fruit crops: Physiological implications
	Introduction
	Nutritional requirements in fruit plants
		Macronutrients
		Micronutrients
	Nutrient dynamics in fruit plants
		Nutrient uptake
		Nutrient redistribution in the plant
		Nutrient recycling by green manure
	The role of silicon in fruit plant nutrition
	Association with microorganisms
	Future line of research
	References
	Further reading
4
Plant nutrition and physiological disorders in fruit crops
	Introduction
	Definition of physiological disorders
	Classification of physiological disorders
	Visual symptoms of nutrient deficiency disorders
	Visual symptoms of some important physiological disorders
		Alternate bearing
		Fruit drop
		Fruit splitting or cracking
		Cold pitting (peel pitting)
		Puffing
		Creasing (albedo breakdown)
		Navel rind stain (rind breakdown)
		Oleocellosis
		Granulation
		Predicting disorder incidence
	Causes and management of important physiological disorders
		Alternate bearing
			Causes
			Control
		Fruit drop
			Causes
			Control
		Fruit splitting or cracking
			Causes
			Control
		Cold pitting (peel pitting)
			Causes
			Control
		Puffing
			Causes
			Control
		Creasing
			Causes
			Control
		Navel rind stain (rind breakdown)
			Control
		Oleocellosis
			Causes
			Control
		Granulation
			Causes
			Control
	Future lines of research
	References
5
Ecophysiology of fruit crops: A glance at its impact on fruit crop productivity
	Introduction
	Light
	Temperature
	Water
	Wind
	Future line of research
	Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
6
Estimating carbon fixation in fruit crops
	Introduction
	Citrus trees carbon sequestration capability
		Experimental site, culture practice, and experimental design
		Sample collection and measurements
		Direct measurements of carbon sequestration components
		Statistical analysis
	Carbon capture of long residence woody, leaf, fruit, and roots
	Contribution of different fruit orchards to carbon storage
	Future line of research
	References
7
Effects of climate change on fruit nutrition
	Introduction
	Notable changes in climate for fruit nutrition
	Effects of climate change on crops
	Effects of climate change on fruit nutrition
		Effects of climate change on apple quality
		Effects of climate change on banana quality
		Effects of climate change on grape quality
		Effects of climate change on orange quality
		Effects of climate change on watermelon quality
	Conclusion
	Future research
	References
8
NIR spectroscopy and management of bioactive components, antioxidant activity, and macronutrients in fruits
	Outline
	Daily fruit consumption and composition
	Near-infrared spectroscopy
	Chemometrics
	Near-infrared spectroscopy measurement of fruits
		Practical application of NIR spectroscopy related to multivariate analysis
	Near-infrared scan of different fruits
		Qualitative analysis
		Quantitative analysis
	Conclusion and future directions
	References
9
Role of sensors in fruit nutrition
	Outline
	Introduction
	Sensors based in vibrational spectroscopy
		Near- and mid-infrared spectroscopy
		Hyperspectral spectroscopy
	Data and information: Multivariate data analysis
	Applications
		Nitrogen status in plants and fruits
		Water-dry matter
		Other macro and trace elements
	Final considerations
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
10
Omics in fruit nutrition: Concepts and application
	Introduction
	Biofortified and nutritionally enhanced food crops
	Omics
	Transgenic fruit crops
		Methods of analysis
		Bioinformatics
		Databases
	Omics in nutrition
		Foodomics
		Acceptance issues
	Future research trends and needs
	Summary
	References
	Further reading
11
Leaf analysis as diagnostic tool for balanced fertilization in tropical fruits
	Introduction
	Basic aspects of foliar diagnosis
		Visual diagnosis
			Dispersion
			Symmetry
			Gradient
		Foliar diagnosis
			Deficient zone or range
			Transition zone or range
			Luxury consumption zone or range
			Toxicity range
	Criteria for leaf sampling
	Sampling preparation and chemical analysis
	Leaf diagnosis of fruit trees
		Conventional method (critical level or adequate range)
		Leaf contentxproduction/yield
		DRIS and CND methods
	Leaf diagnosis using alternative methods
		Sap analysis
		Biochemical tests
		Chlorophyll concentration
	References
	Further reading
12
Diagnosis of nutrient composition in fruit crops: Major developments
	Introduction
	Diagnostic methods
		Early evidence of physiological balances between nutrients
		Critical nutrient concentrations and concentration ranges
		Weighted nutrient diagnosis
	Nutrient balances as dual or stoichiometric ratios
		Nutrient ratios
		Diagnosis and recommendation integrated system
	Compositional nutrient diagnosis
		Centered log ratios
		Isometric log ratios
	Data partitioning
	New lines of research
		Customized nutrient balance designs
		Total analysis versus extracted forms
		Box-Cox coefficients
		How physiologically meaningful is nutrient numerical ordering?
		What is the minimum nutrient dosage to recover from nutrient imbalance?
		Ionomics, biofortification, and fruit quality
		Big data, machine learning, and artificial intelligence
	References
	Web references
	Further reading
13
Floral analysis in fruit crops: A potential tool for nutrient constraints diagnosis
	Outline
	Plant response to nutrient concentration
	Nutrient deficiency symptom diagnosis
	Floral analysis in fruit crops: Sampling and analysis
		Sampling
			Leaf sample timing
			Leaf sampling technique
		Handling and analysis of leaf samples
	Floral analysis in fruit crops: Results interpretation and nutrient constraints diagnosis
		Result interpretation
		Nutrient constraint diagnosis and recommendation
	Floral analysis in fruit crops: Combining use of the soil testing
	References
14
Calcium nutrition in fruit crops: Agronomic and physiological implications
	Introduction
	Environmental factors affecting crop germination
		Water
		Temperature
		Oxygen
		Light
	Nutrient feeding of crops
	Applications of calcium nutrition in fruit crops
	Calcium mineral evaluation after migration in fruits
	Nanotechnological nutrition in fruit crops
	Foliar application
	Plant growth responses of nanoparticles applied to soil
		Nanoparticles of macronutrients
		Nanoparticles of micronutrients
	Nanoparticles and side effects applied to soil
	Future research
	References
	Further reading
15
Boron deficiency in fruit crops
	Introduction
	Chemical behavior and nature of boron
	Factors affecting availability of boron in fruit crops
		Soil properties
		Change of root behaviors
		Grafting
		Biostimulators
		Mycorrhizal fungi
	Sensitivity of fruit crops, boron deficiency and diseases
	Importance of boron with reference to sink-source relationship
	Boron functionality; Functionality (hormonal properties of boron) of boron
	Interrelationship of boron with other nutrients
	Anatomical (structural), physiological, and molecular response of boron
	Response of boron to fruit yield and quality
	Boron nutrition and shelf life of fruits
	Future research
	References
	Further reading
16
Boron toxicity in fruit crops: Agronomic and physiological implications
	Introduction
	Boron tolerance mechanism
	Detrimental effects of B toxicity
		Visible symptoms
		Plant growth
		Boron content and distribution
		Interactions with other elements
		Antioxidant activity
		Photosynthesis
	References
	Further reading
17
Aluminum toxicity and fruit nutrition
	Outline
	Introduction
	Al toxic effects on growth and structure
	Physiological and biochemical responses of fruit trees to Al toxicity
		Uptake of mineral nutrients and water
		Leaf gas exchange and chlorophyll a florescence
		Reactive oxygen species and methylglyoxal detoxification systems
		Nonstructural carbohydrates
		Organic acids
	Factors affecting Al tolerance of fruit trees
		Species and cultivars
		Aluminum uptake and distribution
		Secretion of organic acid anions
		Mineral nutrients
			Phosphorus
			Boron
			Calcium and magnesium
			Sulfur
		Nitric oxide and methyl jasmonate
			Nitric oxide
			Methyl jasmonate
		Efficient maintenance of redox homeostasis via reactive oxygen species and methylglyoxal detoxification systems
		Other mechanisms
	Molecular aspects of Al tolerance in fruit trees
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
18
The importance of selenium in fruit nutrition
	Introduction
	Selenium in soil
	Bioavailability of selenium from soil
	Selenium in plants
	Selenium toxicity in plants
	Methods of selenium determination in soil and plants
		Biofortification
	Effect of selenium application on yield and product quality
	Relationship between selenium and silicon
	Future research
	References
	Further reading
19
Importance of silicon in fruit nutrition: Agronomic and physiological implications
	Introduction
	Silicon helps improve plants uptake of minerals
		Nitrogen
		Phosphorus
		Potassium
		Calcium and magnesium
		Iron
		Manganese
		Zinc
		Copper
	Silicon and improved growth and quality parameters of fruit crops
	Silicon and control of diseases of fruit crops
	Necessity of using silicon fertilizers
	Future research
	Acknowledgment
	References
	Further reading
20
Cover cropping for increasing fruit production and farming sustainability
	Introduction
	Soil management systems
		Soil tillage
		Bare soil managed with herbicides
		Mulching
		Cover cropping
			Cover cropping with spontaneous vegetation
			Green manures and short-term cover crops
			Self-reseeding legumes and continuous cover cropping
		Mixed systems
	Impact of weed management on soil and environment
		Soil erosion
		Organic matter and soil microbiology
		Water conservation
		Environmental contamination
		Biodiversity and relation with pests, diseases, and auxiliary organisms
	Tree crop nutrition and fruit yield
	Adequacy of the soil management system to local agroecological conditions
		Soil management in irrigated orchards
		Cover crops for rainfed fruticulture
		Soil management in organic fruticulture
	Future research
	References
21
Rootstock: Scion combinations and nutrient uptake in grapevines
	Outline
	Introduction
	Characteristics of rootstocks associated with the uptake of water and nutrients
	Rootstocks differences on the uptake of macro and micronutrients
		Macronutrients
	Rootstocks differences in chloride (Cl), sodium (Na), and boron (B) accumulation
		Chloride toxicity
		Sodium toxicity
		Boron toxicity
	Carbohydrates and nitrogen reserves
	Rootstock strategies to cope with salinity
	Acknowledgments
	References
22
Microbial ecology in sustainable fruit growing: Genetic, functional, and metabolic responses
	Outline
	Introduction
	Soil microbial dynamics in orchard agrosystems
	Sustainable systems versus conventional systems
	Microbial translocation from soil to plant
	Future perspectives
	References
23
Mycorrhizosphere of fruit crops: Nature and properties
	Outline
	Introduction
	Mycorrhizosphere
		Arbuscular mycorrhizas in fruit crops
	Mycorrhizal fungal diversity in fruit crops
		Fruit crops forming mycorrhizas
		Mycorrhizal fungal diversity in fruit crops
	Mycorrhizosphere roles in fruit crops
		Increase in nutrient absorption
		Enhancement in drought tolerance
		Enhancement in waterlogged tolerance
		Enhancement in salt tolerance
		Enhancement in temperature stress tolerance
		Mitigation of soil replant disease
		Potential roles in mitigating heavy metal pollution
	Mycorrhizosphere effects on soil ecology of orchards
	Production of mycorrhizal fertilizers
	Conclusions and outlook
	Acknowledgements
	References
24
Mycorrhizas in fruit nutrition: Important breakthroughs
	Introduction
	Facultative and obligatory mycorrhizal plants
	Mycorrhizal dependency
		Mycorrhizal dependency and dependent plant species
	Advantages of mycorrhizal dependency on plant
	Mycorrhiza-dependent horticultural plant species
	Mycorrhizae and plant nutrition
		Mycorrhizae reduce the nutrient deficiency stress
	Contribution of mycorrhizae on P uptake and plant growth
	Contribution of mycorrhizae on other nutrient uptake
	Mycorrhizae and other rhizosphere organisms
		Mycorrhiza is an efficient mechanism in rhizosphere for plant health
		Relationship between plant-bacteria-mycorrhizae
	Compatibility and collaboration of AMs with other rhizosphere microbes
	Future aspects and concluding remarks
	References
	Further reading
25
Microbial consortia: Concept and application in fruit crop management
	Outline
	Introduction
	Natural consortia
	Concept of managed consortia
	Consortia types, approaches, and applications in agriculture
	Applications in fruit crop management
		Soil management and nutrient mobilization: Effect on the rhizosphere
		Stress tolerance
		Disease prevention and role in plant defense
		Biostimulants
		Biopesticides
		Postharvest control of fruit spoilage
		Ecomanagement
	Microbiome engineering
	Conclusions and future prospects
	Acknowledgments
	References
26
Biofertigation in fruit crops: Concept and application
	Introduction
	Application
	Crop application
	Conclusions
	References
27
Nutrient management in fruit crops: An organic way
	Introduction
	Soil organic matter
		Temporary and permanent cover crops
		Mulching
		Organic fertilizers
	Biochar
	Tree nutrient balance
		Tree nutrient requirement
		Nutrient availability
			Nitrogen
			Phosphorus
			Potassium
			Calcium
			Magnesium
			Iron
			Manganese and zinc
			Boron
	References
28
Biodynamic soil fertility management in fruit crops
	Outline
	Introduction
	Biodynamic approach to soil fertility
	Do BD preparations affect soil fertility?
		Importance of the plant-soil interaction
		Effects on perennial crops
	Summarized biodynamic recommendations and concluding remarks
	References
29
Manipulating fruit quality through foliar nutrition
	Outline
	Introduction
	Nitrogen (N)
	Phosphorus (P)
	Potassium (K)
	Calcium (Ca)
	Magnesium (Mg)
	Sulfur (S)
	Boron (B)
	Cobalt (Co)-copper (Cu)-iron (Fe)
	Zinc (Zn)
	Manganese (Mn)-nickel (Ni)-selenium (Se)
	Titanium (Ti)
	Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
30
Open field hydroponics in fruit crops: Developments and challenges
	Introduction
	What is new in this system
	Implementation of the system in the field: Our experience
		Choosing the substrate type
		Irrigation system and design according with the OFSS
		When, where, and how implement the substrate bag
		Water and nutrient management
		Advantages
		Disadvantages
	Conclusions and future research
	Acknowledgments
	References
31
Role of biochars in soil fertility management of fruit crops
	Outline
	Introduction
	Biochar: Production and chemical and physical characteristics
	Effects of biochar on the soil-plant system
		Effects on soil physical properties
		Effects on soil chemical properties
		Effects on soil biological properties
		Effects of biochar on plant nutrition and crop yield
			Effects of biochar on crop yield
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
32
Physiological and molecular basis of salinity tolerance in fruit crops
	Introduction
	Effects of salt stress on fruit crops
		General signs
			Osmotic stress
			Salt-specific effects
		Physiological responses to salt stress
			Water relations
			Gaseous exchange
			Hormonal regulation
				Preferential accumulation of potassium
				Maintenance of photosynthesis
				Antioxidative metabolism
				Enzymatic antioxidant activity
				Nonenzymatic antioxidant activity
			Salt avoidance
				Salt exclusion
			Salt excretion
			Ion channels involvement
				Sodium and potassium channels
				Chloride channels
	Response of different pathways under salinity
		Salt stress signaling
	Strategies for improvement of salt tolerance
		Genetic basis of salt tolerance
			Marker-assisted selection
			QTL mapping
			Association mapping
			Genome sequencing
			Gene-based markers
			Transcriptional regulation
				Genomics and proteomics
			Metabolites
			Genetic transformation
	Conclusion and future prospects
	References
33
Salt stress alleviation through fertilization in fruit crops
	Introduction
	Irrigation water quality
	Fruit crops salt tolerance
		pH and alkalinity
		Specific ion toxicity
		Sodium effects on soil
	Fertilization
		Nutrient stewardship
			Fertilization method
			Fertilization scheduling
			Fertilizer source and rate
	Organic amendments
		Bioestimulants and biofertilizers
		Microbial inoculants
		Humic substances
		Others biostimulants
	Conclusions
	References
	Further reading
34
Trunk nutrition in fruit crops: An overview
	Outline
	Introduction
	Trunk injection history
	Factors that influence trunk injections
		Trunk anatomy
	Previous studies in trunk nutrition
	Concluding remarks
	References
35
Importance of nanofertilizers in fruit nutrition
	Outline
	Fruit production and fertilizers
	Common sources of fertilizers for fruit production
	Use of nanofertilizers in fruit production
	Lower loss from leaching and volatilization
	Decrease in fixation, precipitation, or speciation in nonbioavailable forms
	Higher growth and yield
	Biostimulation with nanofertilizers: Stress tolerance and nutraceutical quality
	The environmental fate of nanofertilizers
	Future line of research
	References
36
4R nutrient stewardship in fruit crops
	Introduction
	Goals and performance indicators
		Productivity
		Profitability
		Environmental health
		Sustainability
	The 4Rs
		Right source
		Right rate
		Right time
		Right place
	References
	Further reading
37
Climate-smart integrated soil fertility management in fruit crops: An overview
	Outline
	Introduction
	Soil fertility and functions: Important facts
	Fruit crops as carbon sink and response at elevated CO2
	Nutrient removal versus nutrient requirement
	Nutrient-microbe synergy in unlocking productivity
		Microbial consortium: A novel concept
	Climate resilient approach of ISFM: Our case study
		ISFM: Plant growth, fruit yield, and quality response
		ISFM: Response on soil health
		ISFM: Response on enzyme profiling
		ISFM: Changes in rhizosphere CO2 emission
		ISFM: Spectral behavior of soil
	Suggested future viewpoints
	References
	Further reading
38
Evaluation of organic versus conventional nutrient management practices in fruit crops
	Outline
	Introduction
	Methodology of organic versus conventional: Comparative studies
		Mineral content
		Macronutrients
			Nitrogen
			Phosphorus and sulfur
			Calcium, magnesium, and potassium
			Sodium and trace elements
				Dry matter, soluble solid content, and organic acid content
				Ascorbic acid, polyphenols content, and antioxidant activity
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
39
Role of controlled and slow release fertilizers in fruit crop nutrition
	Introduction
	Controlled- and slow-release fertilizers
		Common CRFs and SRFs used in crop production
		N release patterns from CRFs and SRFs
	Role of CRFs and SRFs in fruit crop production
		CRFs and SRFs improve fruit crop production
		CRFs and SRFs reduce nutrient loss
		CRFs and SRFs improve rhizosphere microbial community
		CRFs and SRFs boosts health of HLB trees
	Concerns of using CRFs and SRFs in fruit crop production and perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
40
Diagnosis and management of nutritional constraints in berries
	Availability of nutrients
	The roots and the rhizosphere
	Strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa Duch.)
		Accumulation of minerals in the plant
		Causes of nutrient constraints
		Diagnosis of nutrient constraints
			Nitrogen (N)
			Potassium (K)
			Calcium (Ca)
			Magnesium (Mg)
			Phosphorus (P)
			Boron (B)
		Management of nutrient constraints
	Highbush blueberry (Vaccinium sp.)
		Accumulation of minerals in the plant
		Causes of nutrient constraints
		Diagnosis of nutrient constraints
			Nitrogen (N)
			Potassium (K)
			Calcium (Ca)
			Magnesium (Mg)
			Phosphorous (P)
			Boron (B)
		Management of nutrient constraints
	References
41
Soil fertility: Plant nutrition vis-à-vis fruit yield and quality of stone fruits
	Introduction
	Distribution, production, and importance of stone fruits
		Global distribution
		Production statistics
	Short overview about importance of stone fruits
	Soil fertility
	Fertilization of stone fruit frees
		General overview
		Response of stone fruit trees to fertilization
		Role of individual elements in stone fruit trees
	Relationship of soil conditions: Nutrients
		Soil conditions
		Source of nutrients and their availability
	Stone fruit fertilization to improve yield and fruit quality
		Fertilizers used in stone fruit production
		Factors influencing stone fruit tree fertilization
		Determination of adequate nutrient requirement of stone fruits
			Soil testing
			Plant analysis
		Improving stone fruits productivity and fruit quality using fertilizers
			Organic fertilizers
			Macronutrients
			Micronutrients
	Conclusions and future research
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further reading
42
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in papaya
	Introduction
	Uses and nutritional value
	Botany
	Habitat
	Growth behavior and management-related aspects
	Diagnosis of nutrient deficiencies
		Morphological diagnosis of nutrient deficiencies
		Leaf nutrient standards and chemical content-based methods
		Complementary methods for diagnosis of nutrient constraints
	Nutrient management
		Nutrient requirement for C. papaya L
		Management aspects related to soil acidity
		Fertilizer dosage for papaya using an empirical approach
		A mechanistic modeling approach to management
	Conclusions and perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
43
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in mango
	Outline
	Introduction
	Nutritional value of fruit
	Geographical distribution
	Major cultivars
	Physiological disorders and plant nutrition
		Mango malformation: Causes and management
			Macronutrients nutrition
			Micronutrient nutrition
		Spongy tissue: Causes and management
		Fruit drop: Causes and management
		Biennial bearing: Causes and management
		Black tip: Causes and management
	Diagnosis of nutrient constraints
		Nutrient deficiency symptoms
		Soil and leaf nutrient analysis
			Leaf nutrient indices
	Optimum fertilizer requirement
		Time and method of fertilizer application
		Organic nutrient management
		Integrated nutrient management
		Foliar application of nutrients
		Fertigation
	Plant nutrition and shelf life of fruits
	Future line of research
	References
	Further reading
44
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in bananas (Musa spp.)
	Outline
	Introduction
	Classification, geographical distribution, and major cultivars
	Biotic production constraints and yields
	Major soil types and nutrient requirements for banana production
	Diagnosis of banana nutrient constraints (nutrient deficiency symptoms, soil fertility norms for different Banana cult ...
	Physiological disorders due to nutritional and environmental constraints
	Management of nutrient constraints
	Conclusions
	Future research
	References
45
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
	Outline
	Introduction
	Nutrient concentration in litchi plant
	Nutrient accumulation and distribution in litchi plant
	Nutrient imbalance in litchi
	Nutrient diagnosis in litchi
	Nutrient management in litchi
	Future research
	References
46
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pomegranate
	Outline
	Commercial pomegranate cultivation
	Where pomegranates grow
	The effects of pomegranate cultivar on the cropping system
	The pomegranate cropping system
	Pomegranate nutrition and fertilization
		Conventional versus organic production
		Leaf tissue nutrition
		The big four
			Nitrogen
			Phosphorus
			Potassium
			Zinc
		The other macro- and micronutrients
	Foliar applications
		Cultivar considerations
	Future lines of research
	References
	Further reading
47
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in grape
	Introduction
	Major cultivars
	Symptoms of nutrient deficiency and excess in grapevines
		Symptom origin
		Symptoms of nutrient deficiency and excess
	Diagnosis of nutrient content in vineyard soils
	Diagnosis of nutrient contents in grapevines
	Alternative methods of predicting nutritional status in grapevines (DRIS, CND)
	Correction of acidity and fertilization in vineyards
		Limestone and gypsum in vineyards
		Fertilization in vineyards
	Practices to increase nutrient efficiency in vineyards
	Contamination of vineyard soils
		Contamination of vineyard soils with P
		Contamination of vineyard soils with nitrate
		Contamination of vineyard soils with Cu and Zn
	Future research and considerations
	References
	Further reading
48
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in guava
	Introduction
	Guava production
		Economic importance
	Soils as growing media for guava production
		Soil analysis
		Leaf diagnosis
	Lime requirement, liming, and liming materials
		Liming before planting
		Liming established orchards
	Fertilization
		Fertilization at planting
		Fertilization of young, nonbearing plants
		Fertilization of established orchards
		Alternative fertilizer sources: By-products of the guava processing agroindustry
			Contribution pruning to nutrient cycling
	Evolution of guava nutrient diagnostic methods
	References
	Further reading
49
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in citrus
	Introduction
		Citrus origin and its production
	Types and main cultivars of citrus
	Soil type of citrus-producing regions
	Role of mineral nutrition on yield and fruit quality
		Nitrogen
		Potassium
		Phosphorus
		Magnesium
		Calcium
		Micronutrients
	Diagnosis of deficiency
		Leaf and soil analysis and optimum levels
		Role of soil pH on nutrient uptake and availability
	Methods of fertilizer application
		Granular fertilizer
			Conventional fertilizer
			Controlled release fertilizer
		Liquid fertilizer
			Fertigation
			Foliar fertilizer
	Huanglongbing
		Huanglongbing and nutrient deficiencies
		Water uptake in HLB-affected trees
	Balanced and constant nutrition (BCN)
		Soil pH/irrigation water pH
	Future research
	References
50
Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in pineapple
	Introduction
	Nutritive value
	Geographical distribution
	Major cultivars
	Commercial belts
	Major soil types with taxonomical distribution
	Soil property-fruit quality relationship
	Diagnosis of nutrient constraints
		Nitrogen
		Phosphorus
		Potassium
		Calcium
		Magnesium
	Management of nutrient constraints
	Use of sewage sludge and treated waste water on pineapple nutrition
	Future line of research
	References
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Z
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